ifi?afA?liaJ4i» 



METHODS OF TEACHING 
IN HIGH SCHOOLS 



BY 



SAMUEL CHESTER PARKER 

PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL METHODS AND DEAN OF 
THE COLLEGE OF EDUCATION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO 



GINN AND COMPANY 

BOSTON • NEW YORK • CHICAGO • LONDON 



COPYRIGHT, 1915, BY SAMUEL CHESTER PARKER 
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 

515-1 

i 






GINN AND COMPANY • PRO- 
PRIETORS • BOSTON • U.S.A. 



MAR -6 1915 



DEDICATED TO 

PROFESSOR T. L FEENEY 

TEACHER AND INSPIRER OF YOUTH 

AND TO HIS ASSOCIATES IN THE 

TECHNICAL SCHOOL OF CINCINNATI 

FROM 1894 TO 1898 



PREFACE 

This textbook applies to high-school instruction the same 
general principles that have been applied so frequently and 
fruitfully to the consideration of elementary-school methods. 
It contains some of the materials used by the author in his 
classes in educational methods for prospective high-school 
teachers. Sometimes his classes contain both prospective 
elementary and high-school teachers. At such times, after a 
general principle of method has been discussed, applications 
are made to both elementary and high-school teaching, 
because practically every general principle of method does 
apply in both places. Inasmuch as the line between elemen- 
tary and secondary (or adolescent) education should probably 
be drawn at about twelve or thirteen years of age, the illus- 
trations given in this volume will apply in many cases to the 
seventh and eighth grades as well. It is the intention to 
issue a companion volume which will follow the same general 
lines as this one, but will draw its illustrations from the 
elementary grades proper ; namely, from the kindergarten 
through the sixth grade. 

The scientific basis for part of the discussion in the book 
is found in modern experimental psychology. This is partic- 
ularly the case in the discussion of certain aspects of learning 
which have been subjected to extensive laboratory investiga- 
tion, such as motor learning and practice. In other cases, where 
experimental data are not available, I have relied on author- 
itative, analytical discussions such as Professor Dewey's 
" How We Think." 

vii 



viii TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

The author's general point of view has been determined 
by a number of influences. The first factor was four years' 
experience as a pupil and one as a teacher in the Technical 
School of Cincinnati, a private manual-training high school 
which exemplified in its instruction the efficient and pro- 
gressive application of many of the most important princi- 
ples of method. The second factor was a year's training in 
general and experimental psychology and education under 
Professor C. H. Judd. The third set of influences included 
studies under Professors John Dewey and E. L. Thorndike of 
Columbia University. The latter's textbook, entitled '' Prin- 
ciples of Teaching" (1905), has been especially influential, 
since I have used it as a basis of discussion in my classes for 
nine years. The final factor in determining the preparation 
of this textbook was the opportunity given me to teach the 
courses in the subdivision of Educational Methods in the 
Department of Education at The University of Chicago. It is 
the function of this subdivision of the department to discuss 
and investigate problems of method or classroom procedure 
at all stages of schooling. 

In general the author takes the point of view that effi- 
ciency and economy in instruction are facilitated by (i) radi- 
cally adapting all instruction to contemporary social needs, 
(2) basing methods of instruction on sound psychological 
principles which have been determined, as far as possible, 
experimentally, and (3) applying principles of scientific busi- 
ness management to the conduct of all teaching. The first 
of these standards eliminates processes that have no direct 
social value ; the second eliminates waste of effort resulting 
from the use of uneconomical and ineffective methods of 
learning ; the third eliminates waste of time which results 
from failure to standardize materials and processes. 



PREFACE ix 

In order that this volume may serve to introduce students 
to the great body of practical educational literature that is now 
available, and may initiate habits of consulting such material, 
especially as it appears in current periodicals, I have quoted, 
wherever possible, from worthy discussions of the topics under 
consideration and have suggested that the students follow up 
the topics more fully in the sources that I have used. 

I am indebted to a number of my colleagues in The Uni- 
versity 'of Chicago for suggestions and criticisms. Of these. 
Professors J. F. Bobbitt, F. N. Freeman, R. L. Lyman, 
and Mr, W. S. Gray read and criticized certain chapters or 
parts of chapters ; Professor Harvey Carr made a number 
of suggestions in connection with the discussion of learning 
processes ; and Mr. A. F. Barnard, Mr, E. R. Breslich, and 
Miss Lydia Schmidt, of the University High School, have 
contributed a number of practical examples. For permission 
to reproduce illustrations from various sources I am indebted 
to a number of authors and publishers whose names are noted 
in the list of illustrations and in the body of the text. 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER I 

INTRODUCTION — SCOPE OF THE BOOK 

PAGE 

Possibility of applying general principles to high-school instruction . i 

Principles based on scientific evidence and expert opinion 3 

Bibliographical note 4 

CHAPTER n 

BROADENING PURPOSES OF HIGH-SCHOOL INSTRUCTION 

Main points of the chapter 5 

Necessary for teachers to appreciate purposes 5 

Suggestions from historical development of high-school purposes . . 7 

Aristocratic versus democratic purposes 7 

Liberal versus vocational purposes ,....13 

Theoretical formulation of broader purposes 16 

Ultimate and proximate aims outlined 16 

Bibliographical notes 23 

CHAPTER HI 

ECONOMY IN CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 

Main points of the chapter 25 

Teacher should avoid misdirected time and energy 26 

Routinize mechanical aspects ; use judgment in variable aspects ... 26 
Reasoning and individuality may have same place in well-routinized 

school as in social life 27 

Begin right the first day 31 

Economy in handling materials. Large savings from slight variations . 34 

Proper ventilation and lighting conserve energy 41 

Good order an important time-saver 43 

Bibliographical notes 49 

xi 



xii TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

{j' CHAPTER IV 

THE SELECTION AND ARRANGEMENT OF SUBJECT MATTER 

PAGE 

Main points of the chapter 50 

Widespread interest in selection and arrangement 52 

Subject matter should be adapted to varying social needs 53 

Social needs vary historically ; subject matter should vary accordingly 55 

Needs vary between different communities 60 

Needs vary between different groups in same community 65 

Determination of relative values of subject matter 67 

Intensive thorough treatment of fewer topics ; type studies .... 72 

Many supporting details necessary in intensive study 76 

Organization in terms of the learner versus organization in terms of 

the subject . 78 

Reconstruction of first-year mathematics 81 

Reconstruction of science courses 85 

Logical quality of reconstructed courses 90 

Bibliographical notes 93 

CHAPTER V 

TYPES OF LEARNING INVOLVED IN HIGH-SCHOOL SUBJECTS 

Main points of the chapter 95 

Special methods based on types of learning 95 

Five types, or aspects outlined 96 

CHAPTER VI 

ACQUIRING MOTOR CONTROL 

Main points of the chapter 98 

Motor control important in various activities 98 

Questions of method involved 99 

Learning to juggle balls a typical example of experimentation . . . 100 

Other investigations illustrating trial and error 102 

Empirical discussions in gymnastics 108 

Musical technique ...iii 

Learning pronunciation of a foreign language 114 

Tentative answers to questions of method 118 

Bibliographical notes 120 



CONTENTS xiii 
CHAPTER VII 

ASSOCIATING SYMBOLS AND MEANINGS : LEARNING 
A FOREIGN VOCABULARY 

PAGE 

Main points of the chapter 122 

Predominant process in foreign-language instruction 122 

Types of association in reading and speaking a foreign language . .124 

Possibilities of indirect more obvious than of direct method .... 126 

A ready-made direct method necessary for inexperienced teachers . 129 

Modifications of Gouin system among the best 130 

Objective oral lessons primarily preparatory to reading 135 

Supplementary cautions 138 

Bibliographical notes 140 

CHAPTER VIII 

PRACTICE OR DRILL 

Automatizing Motor and Mental Associations 

Main points of the chapter 142 

Automatizing should follow correct start 142 

Examples of experimental investigations 144 

Aspects of economical learning 147 

Influence of emotional tone 147 

Zeal and concentration of attention make practice efifective .... 149 

Correct recall in memorizing involves concentration 153 

Memorizing by wholes better than by parts 1 54 

Drill on real process ; do not waste time on accessories 158 

Distributed practice better than continuous practice 162 

Empirical discussion of practice on the piano 164 

Bibliographical notes 166 

CHAPTER IX 

REFLECTIVE THINKING 

Problem-Solving. Acquiring Abstract and General Meanings 

Main points of the chapter 169 

SECTION ONE. PROBLEM-SOLVING 

May be required in other subjects than mathematics and natural 

science 170 



xiv TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

PAGE 

Problem-solving is an important activity in social life 176 

Nature of mental activity in problem-solving 180 

Assisting pupils to solve problems 185 

Defining the problem 185 

Stimulating fertility of suggestion 187 

Critical evaluation of suggestion 193 

Verifying by further evidence and by testing inferences 196 

Organizing the material of thought 198 

Summary of suggestions for guiding reflective thinking 199 

Four types of opportunities for students to reason 200 

SECTION TWO. ACQUIRING ABSTRACT AND GENERAL MEANINGS 

Plays a large part in high-school instruction 205 

General questions concerning best methods to use 212 

Untutored method of learning may contain suggestions 212 

School expedites process and stresses technical meanings .... 214 

May expedite by intensive study of a few typical examples . . . . 214 

Particular personal experiences a necessary basis for abstractions . . 217 

Exact definitions. Not necessary in all thinking 220 

Get the meaning first, then add the symbol 224 

Summary of principles of teaching abstract and general meanings . 225 

Generalizations aid in solving personal and social problems .... 226 

Bibliographical notes 230 



CHAPTER X 

FORMING HABITS OF HARMLESS ENJOYMENT 

Main points of the chapter 232 

Emotional aspect uppermost in the consideration 233 

Widespread recognition of need of training to enjoy leisure .... 234 

Participation in sports and games. Chances for all 235 

Social activities 236 

Music. Two possibilities : participation and listening 238 

Meaning of enpymejit is clear ; of appreciation^ vague 242 

Confusing understanding and enjoyment common in teaching litera- 
ture 244 

No necessary connection between good art and good morality . . , 250 
Study of Hterature. Introduced in high school from classical stand- 
point 253 

Enghsh teachers rapidly adapting methods to social needs .... 254 



CONTENTS XV 

PAGE 

Teacher must know what is adapted to students 259 

\ Diflficult to avoid snap courses in reading for enjoyment 262 

S^ Enjoyment of drama 263 

Bibliographical notes 267 

''^ CHAPTER XI 

TRAINING IN EXPRESSION 

Main points of the chapter 269 

An important issue in all classes . .' 270 

Emphasize expression of everyday matters 271 

Make sure that students have vital content to express 272 

English teacher needs broad experience, training, and point of view . 277 

Motive for expression furnished by real audience 278 

Require students to have clear ideas to express 280 

Student must get point of view of audience 281 

How to avoid snap courses in oral expression 285 

Training in expression best secured in content subjects 287 

General principles of expression apply to drawing 291 

Bibliographical notes 294 

CHAPTER Xn 

SELF-ACTIVITY AND APPERCEPTION 

Main points of the chapter 296 

Self-activity : student is educated by his own responses 296 

Self-activity in various types of learning 297 

Student's words often unreliable evidence of his mental activity . . 299 
Apperception : response determined by past experience and present 

frame of mind 300 

. x\ll instruction must be. adapted to experience and development of 

students 303 

Influence of present frame of mind 304 

Teacher must put students in proper frame of mind 307 

Bibliographical notes 312 

CHAPTER Xni 

INFLUENCE OF AGE ON LEARNING 

Main points of the chapter 314 

Do students at different ages vary in ability to learn 314 

Acquiring motor skill; maintain that adolescence is as favorable • • 315 



xvi TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

PAGE 

Learning a foreign vocabulary. Maintain that later years are as 

favorable 318 

Some reasons for prevalence of contrary opinion 322 

Changes with age in reasoning processes 326 

Reasoning abilities of children demonstrated by Bonser 326 

Arguments for contrary opinion refuted 328 

Same point of view applied to training in enjoyment and expression . 332 

Bibliographical notes 335 



CHAPTER XIV 

INTERESTS, THE BASIS OF ECONOMY IN LEARNING 

Main points of the chapter 336 

Intensive application necessary for economical learning 336 

Best secured by utilizing student's active interests 337 

Interest and attention ; spontaneous and forced attention 341 

Instinctive spontaneous attention 344 

Important instincts used as a basis of attention and interest .... 348 

Habitual attention 358 

Teachers must study interests of high-school students 360 

Bibliographical notes 361 



CHAPTER XV 

ADAPTING CLASS INSTRUCTION TO DIFFERENCES 
IN CAPACITY 

Main points of the chapter 362 

Class instruction needs supplementing to suit individuals 362 

Historical development of individual and class instruction 363 

Interest stimulated by statistical demonstrations of differences and 

waste 367 

Typical experiments ' . ^yc) 

Abolishing all class instruction 379 

Self-conducted homogeneous groups 381 

Recitations only for students who need them 384 

Required supervised study periods 387 

Bibliographical notes 389 



CONTENTS xvii 
CHAPTER XVI 

SUPERVISED STUDY 

PAGE 

Main points of the chapter 391 

Supervised study should partially replace recitations and home study . 391 

Teachers fail to appreciate students' difficulties 393 

Measured results show superiority of supervised study 397 

Divided periods provide for required supervised study in high schools . 402 

Physical conditions should suggest study 403 

Form habits of going through the motions of studying 405 

Concentrated studying must be secured through interest 409 

Routinized directions to students to assist in studying 411 

Special technique to be used by teacher in supervising study. . . . 412 

Bibliographical notes 417 

CHAPTER XVn 

THE USE OF BOOKS 

Main points of the chapter 418 

Four sources of subject matter 419 

Reflective reading of books a most important social process .... 420 

Textbooks. Exercise care to select well-constructed, appropriate ones . 421 
Supplementary reading. Provide definite assignments to sufficient 

duplicates 425 

Reports based on independent investigations of assigned topics. 

Special technique of administering 428 

Bibliographical notes 435 



CHAPTER XVni 

CONVERSATIONAL METHODS 

Main points of the chapter 436 

Conversational method works over student's previous experiences . . 436 

Exploited by American Herbartians 439 

Criticism of eliciting everything by questions 441 

The Socratic method a circuitous form of conversational method . . 442 

Much better to tell some things than to waste time 446 

Legitimate uses 447 

Bibliographical notes 448 



xviii TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

CHAPTER XIX 
LABORATORY METHODS 

PAGE 

Main points of the chapter 449 

Laboratory methods may secure information, reflective thinking, and 

skill 449 

Exercise care in selecting laboratory manual 451 

Adapt laboratory exercises to broader social needs 455 

Economy would often justify substitution of lecture demonstration . . 457 

Avoid highly specialized forms of motor skill . , 458 

For reflective thinking, laboratory exercises must grow out of problems 459 

Freely merge discussion, laboratory exercises, and interpretation . . 460 

Bibliographical notes 463 



CHAPTER XX 

THE ART OF QUESTIONING 

Main points of the chapter . 465 

Rapid adaptation required of teacher in skilled questioning 466 

Recitation as a place for group progress determines technique . . . 468 

Rapid pace for drill questions ; slow pace for thought questions ... 471 

Repetition in questioning 472 

Bibliographical notes 474 



CHAPTER XXI 

PRACTICE TEACHING AND LESSON-PLANNING 

Main points of the chapter 475 

Practice teaching with adolescent pupils to be provided 475 

Apply general principles of practice ■. . ,477 

Routinized scheme for administering practice is desirable 479 

Herbartian formal steps a favorite routine device 480 

Mimeographed scheme of directions to be followed in planning . . 483 

Departure from plan while teaching 487 

Sample routine directions to practice teachers and supervisors . . . 488 

Bibliographical notes 491 



CONTENTS xix 
CHAPTER XXII 

MEASURING THE RESULTS OF TEACHING 

PAGE 

Main points of the chapter 492 

Measurement of results show whether purposes are achieved . . . 492 
Routine testing by the teacher. Avoid extremes of overemphasis and 

neglect 493 

Precautions to assure commensurable results 496 

Measuring various types of learning 497 

Methods of grading 500 

Comparative measures of different classes and methods. Recent 

enthusiasm 502 

Judgments of science made reliable by special technique 504 

Scales of measurement being developed in various subjects .... 508 

Bibliographical notes 51 1 

L/ CHAPTER XXIII 

ORGANIZED OBSERVATION OF TEACHING 

Main points of the chapter 512 

Observation essential to show applications of theory 512 

Suggestive outlines for observing pupils and teaching 515 

Bibliographical notes 522 

INDEX 523 



SUPPLEMENTARY READING 

In a textbook. — Probably the best textbook in which to assign 
parallel readings is E. L. Thomdike's " Principles of Teaching." 
These readings will be especially helpful in connection with the 
chapters on the various types of learning and those on self-activity 
and apperception, interests, individual differences, and measuring 
the results of teaching. 

In periodicals. — All prospective high-school teachers should 
form the habit of reading regularly the educational periodicals 
which deal with general problems of high-school instruction or with 
the teaching of special subjects in high school. These periodicals 
are full of practical suggestions and put the reader in touch with 
the most progressive methods of teaching. Students should be 
required to prepare select bibliographies of articles dealing with 
the teaching of special subjects in which they are interested and to 
present oral or written reports on a few of the articles. 

The following periodicals are especially helpful : 

1. The School Review. Published by The University of Chicago 
Press. The best journal devoted to general problems of high-school 
organization and instruction. 

2 . The English Journal. Published by The University of Chicago 
Press. 

3. The History Teachers'' Magazine. Published by the McKinley 
Publishing Co., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. 

4. School Science and Mathematics. Published by Smith and 
Turton, Mount Morris, Illinois. 



XXI 



ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

Harrison Technical High School, Chicago, Illinois . . Frontispiece 
The Boston Latin Grammar School, founded 1635. From 

Monroe's '' History of Education " 4 

High-school building of the H-type 43 

Readjusted academy at Colebrook, New Hampshire. Courtesy of 

Mr. H. A. Brown 61 

Colebrook Academy boys learning to use separator. Courtesy of 

Mr. H. A. Brown 63 

Colebrook boys making Babcock milk test. Courtesy of Mr. H. 

A. Brown 64 

Colebrook class securing samples of soil at different depths. 

Courtesy of Mr. H. A. Brown 65 

A lesson in the greenhouse at Colebrook Academy. Courtesy of 

Mr. H. A. Brown 66 

Apparatus used by Dearborn for experimenting upon mirror 

writing . . . ' 104 

Star traced while watching its reflection. After Dearborn . . . 105 
Kinetoscopic pictures used in Gilbreth's motion study to increase 

skill of artisans. From photographs furnished by Mrs. F. B. 

Gilbreth 107 

Jerry Travers's hold for putting in playing golf .109 

Stages in performing the kip on a horizontal bar no 

Incorrect and correct positions of little finger in playing the piano 113 
Curves showing effects of nine months of practice in learning 

telegraphy. After Bryan and Harter, from Thorndike's 

"Educational Psychology" 145 

A French school about 1628, illustrating punishment for errors in 

recitation. From Cubberly's " Syllabus of the History of 

Education ".....- 349 

A French school before 1789, illustrating method of individual 

instruction. From Cubberly's "Syllabus of the History of 

Education " . 363 

xxiii 



xxiv TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

PAGE 

Curves showing abilities in observing misspelled words and think- 
ing of the opposites of words. From Thorndike's " Principles 
of Teaching" 373 

Normal-frequency surface and curve of distribution. From Thorn- 
dike's " Individuality " 376 

Curves showing abilities in remembering digits and in reaction 

times. From Thorndike's " Educational Psychology " . . 377 

Four types of laboratory notebooks. Reproduced by permission 

ixova ihe. School Review 451-453 



KEY TO BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REFERENCES 

The books from which quotations are made in the text are 
included in the bibliographies which are printed at the ends of the 
chapters. The source of each quotation is indicated (usually at its 
end) by two figures in parenthesis. The first figure refers to the 
book by its number in the bibliography at the end of the chapter, 
and the second figure refers to the page. Thus, (4 : 76) means 
page 76 in the fourth book in the chapter bibliography. This 
system has been adopted in order that the instructor or student 
may verify or follow up any quotation," but at the same time the 
ordinary reader will not be distracted by numerous footnote refer- 
ences which are unimportant in his reading. 



XXV 



METHODS OF TEACHING 
IN HIGH SCHOOLS * 



METHODS OF TEACHING 
IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

CHAPTER I 

INTRODUCTION — SCOPE OF THE BOOK 

Purpose. — The purpose of this textbook is to introduce 
students to a study of the principles which underUe instruc- 
tion in high-school subjects. Hence it is concerned primarily 
with the work of classroom teachers and only incidentally 
with the curriculum and organization of high schools. 

Possibility of applying general principles to high-school in- 
struction. — The principles which underlie methods of teach- 
ing have been discussed very thoroughly in many excellent 
books from the standpoint of elementary schools, but there 
have been relatively few books which have performed the 
same service for high-school methods in general. A similar 
contrast exists between the large number of books dealing 
with high-school organization and the small number dealing 
with high-school methods in general. 

This situation is partially due to the fact that the methods 
of teaching in high schools may vary greatly with the nature 
of the subjects taught. Striking examples of this variation 
are found in the problems of method involved in teaching 
manual training, a foreign language, and geometry. Each of 
these subjects has peculiar problems of method different 
from those in the other subjects. In the case of many high- 
school subjects there is no lack of discussion of these special 



2 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

methods. Thus we have numerous books deahng with the 
teaching of Enghsh, history, mathematics, and -the sciences 
in high schools, but few discussions of gf^^al methods of 
high-school instruction. ^ 

Moreover, it has been generally^^'sumed that all that a 
high-school teacher needs in (x^glr to be successful is a thor- 
ough knowledge of his subject matter plus the ability to make 
pupils behave. Persons who have held this point of view 
have often been willing to admit that a knowledge of the 
principles of method may improve the work of teachers in 
kindergartens and in elementary schools, but they have held 
that such pedagogical considerations could contribute little to 
the improvement of high-school teaching. 

There are, however, many phases of high-school teaching 
in which general principles of method play as important a 
part as they do in elementary school work. In the chapters 
that follow, an endeavor will be made to demonstrate this 
fact in detail. 

Main topics to be discussed. — The principal topics which 
will be taken up are the following : 

1 . The purposes to be attained by high-school instruction. 

2. The importance of economy in classroom activity; the 
attaining of a given purpose with the minimum of time and 
energy. 

3. Standards determining the selection and arrangement 
of subject matter within a given subject ; that is, what to 
teach and how to organize it. 

4. The most economical and effective methods of learning 
to be employed in different subjects. 

5. How to stimulate pupils to learn most economically, 
that is, with effective concentration of energy. 

6. Provisions for individual differences in class instruc- 
tion, so that each pupil may advance at a pace suited to his 
capacities. 

7. Supervision of study to eliminate misdirected effort. 



INTRODUCTION — SCOPE OF THE BOOK 3 

8. The most effective use of various sources for enriching 
pupils' experiences, involving a consideration of 

(a) Books as sources ; recitation and reference methods. 
{b) The pupils' own objective experiences, both present 
and past, as sources ; laboratory and conversational methods. 

9. The planning of instruction to assure that definite and 
valuable experiences are to be provided. 

10. The testing of teaching, as a check to determine how 
effectively the purposes have been attained. 

11. The observation of teaching, to show the practical 
applications of educational theory. 

Principles based on scientific evidence and expert opinion. 
— In the discussions which follow, it will be possible in some 
cases to present well-established scientific conclusions as the 
theoretical basis of the principles under consideration, and to 
indicate how the latter have been carried out in successful 
practice in typical high schools. In other cases, however, 
there may be no stronger evidence in favor of the principles 
advocated than the opinions of some of the best-informed 
thinkers about education who have written since the time of 
John Locke (163 2-1 704). These opinions may not be valid, 
but the chances are that they are nearer the truth than the 
opinions of persons who have not devoted considerable study 
to pedagogical problems. In any case, they serve the pur- 
pose of introducing the student to the problems, and prepare 
him to appreciate and perhaps contribute to the more valid 
experimental determination of the best methods of instruc- 
tion, which promises to play such a large part in future 
educational endeavor. 

Observations of classes should supplement study of the 
text. — In order to relate the discussions in each chapter to 
practical situations, instructors who are using the text and 
have facilities for observation should utilize the directions 
given in Chapter XXIII. Observations should be required 
early in the course, in order to furnish students with fresh 



4 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

concrete examples of the general principles under discussion. 
The suggestions provided by the author may be modified to 
suit local needs, but in every case it is desirable to provide 
the observers with definite questions or points upon which 
observations and subsequent discussiens may be based. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE 

Parker, S. C. The Present Status of Education as a Science in 
the Field of Methods. School Review Monograph No. II. (University 
of Chicago Press, 191 2.) Pp. 135-150. 




THE BOSTON LATIN GRAMMAR SCHOOL, FOUNDED 1635 

From Monroe's " History of Education." The contrast between this simple build- 
ing in the yard of King's Chapel and the magnificent Chicago high school shown 
in the frontispiece is paralleled by a similar contrast in the aims and curricula of 
the secondary schools of the seventeenth and twentieth centuries 



CHAPTER II 

BROADENING PURPOSES OF HIGH-SCHOOL 
INSTRUCTION 

To the student. — At the beginning of each chapter will 
be found a brief statement of its main points. This should 
be read in order to get a general notion of what is to come, 
but need not be learned until the chapter is finished, when 
it may be studied as a summary of the chapter. The peda- 
gogical value of reading these summaries is stated in the 
quotation from Herbart on page 307 of this text. 

Main points of the chapter. — i . It is important that high-school 
teachers should have a clear understanding of high-school purposes, 
in order to be able to plan their instruction to best advantage. 

2. Historically, secondary schools have changed from institu- 
tions for a few select students to institutions that train many types 
of boys and girls for many vocations. 

3. Along with the broadening of the vocational training pro- 
vided in high schools has come a broadening of the conception 
of a liberal education to include a sympathetic understanding of 
contemporary civilization. 

4. The broad, ultimate aims of high-school instruction include 
social efficiency (economic, domestic, and civic), good will, and the 
harmless enjoyment of leisure time. 

5. The more detailed or immediate aims of instruction include 
health, information, habits, ideals, and abiding interests. 

Necessary for teachers to appreciate purposes of instruc- 
tion. — One of the most striking developments in recent 
educational history is the rapid change that has taken place 
in the prevailing conceptions of the purposes of high-school 

5 



6 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

education. This change of conception affects not only the 
curriculum and organization of the high school, but it affects 
also very vitally the individual teacher in the teaching of his 
particular subject. If the purposes of the whole institution 
are modified, it follows naturally that the purposes and 
methods within the individual subjects must often be modi- 
fied accordingly. The importance of this fact is not always 
realized by teachers and administrators, with the result that 
many maladjustments arise. 

Poor adjustments restclt from different pitrposes of adminis- 
trators and teachers. — For example, an administrative officer 
may try to reform a system of schools, or a single school, 
without first gradually and carefully initiating the teachers 
into the spirit and purpose of the reforms. As a conse- 
quence the teachers go on in their old ways or strive more 
or less blindly and ineffectually to readjust themselves. The 
resulting strain and stress commonly bring about numerous 
resignations, sometimes including that of the administrator 
who has tried to institute the reforms. A most striking 
example of such a situation occurred in one of our American 
systems toward the end of the nineteenth century. An ad- 
ministrator who failed to put through his reforms because of 
failure to get his purposes understood was succeeded by a 
man who had the same purposes but who started to put them 
into effect by a gradual and careful education of the other 
workers in the system into an understanding of his ideas. 
His efforts were characterized by complete success, in striking 
contrast with the failure of his predecessor. 

Extrem,e differences of opi^tion exist concerning high-school 
purposes. — A high-school teacher going into a new situa- 
tion would do well to inform himself concerning the concep- 
tions of purpose which prevail in the situation in question. 
Owing to the rapid change that has been taking place, there 
exist at the present time the most radical differences of 
opinion concerning purposes. These extreme differences are 



PURPOSES OF HIGH-SCHOOL INSTRUCTION 7 

sometimes found between high schools within the same city,^ 
and commonly center in the antithesis between cultural and 
vocational purposes, or in the antithesis between aristocratic 
and democratic purposes. In order to provide a better under- 
standing of these disagreements, we shall consider briefly 
the historical evolution of secondary schools, of which our 
present type of high school is the most recent development. 
Suggestions from historical development of high-school 
purposes. — Aristocratic or selective purpose in Latin gram- 
mar schools {l^OO-iy^O). — The fact that the secondary 
schools were originally selective and hence more or less aristo- 
cratic in purpose is well illustrated from the writings of Martin 
Luther (1483-1546), who, in the sixteenth century, was active 
in stimulating the organization of both elementary and sec- 
ondary schools. The selective purpose of the latter as schools 
to train leaders is well set forth in the following quotation : 

I hold it to be incumbent on those in authority to command 
their subjects to keep their children at school ; for it is, beyond 
doubt, their duty to ensure the permanence of the above-named 
offices and positions, so that preachers, jurists, curates, scribes, 
physicians, schoolmasters, and the like may not fail from among 
us ; for we cannot do without them. . . . Wherefore, let magis- 
trates lay these things to heart, and let them keep a vigilant look- 
out ; and, wherever they see a promising lad, have him pledged 
at school. 

The elementary school was to be for all children, according 
to Luther, but it was the " promising lads " with whom the 
secondary school was to be chiefly concerned. In England 
and America these secondary schools were known as Latin 
grammar schools. 

Practical value of grammar schools decreased with declhie 
of Latin. — Though the curriculum of the Latin grammar 

1 See the School Review, November, 191 1, Vol. XIX, pp. 585-595, and 
October, 191 2, Vol. XX, pp. 559-563, for a discussion between two New 
York City high schools. 



8 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

schools included practically only instruction in Latin and 
sometimes Greek, they were not originally so limited in the 
practical value of the training they afforded as they came to 
be after the seventeenth century ; for down to the time of 
Queen Elizabeth (15 58-1603) Latin was used as a practical 
instrument in reading, studying, and social intercourse by 
nearly all educated people. After the seventeenth century, 
however, the modern languages very largely replaced the 
Latin for general purposes, and the latter remained of prac- 
tical value for only a few select classes, including professors, 
ministers, lawyers, and physicians. Hence the Latin gram- 
mar school became even more narrowly selective and aris- 
tocratic in character than before. Speaking of this situation 
in the American colonies, and of the persistence of aristo- 
cratic traditions, Brown writes as follows in his work on 
" The Making of Our Middle Schools " : 

In this state of society, no public secondary school seems to 
have been even thought of for the great body of citizens — - the 
middle or lower-middle class. It was thought desirable that all 
should know how to read. And a college training was needed by 
members of the directive class. The secondary school [however] 
was not a mean between these extremes, but rather an institution 
subsidiary to the college ; that is, a preparatory school in the nar- 
rower sense. Promising youth, whatever their social station, were 
encouraged to go to school. But their education was a preparation 
for a place in an upper, that is, a ruling or at least a directing, 
class. (5: 108) 

Academies organized to meet dem,ocratic and economic 
needs (ly^O-lS^o) . — As the Latin grammar school be- 
came more and more remote from the needs of practical 
life, and as democratic conditions and new economic needs 
grew apace in the American colonies during the eighteenth 
century, there developed a demand for a type of secondary 
school that would provide training for various practical pur- 
suits. The outcome was the establishment of the academies, 



PURPOSES OF HIGH-SCHOOL INSTRUCTION 9 

the best early example being Benjamin Franklin's Academy, 
opened in Philadelphia in 175 1. By the end of the eight- 
eenth century these institutions were very numerous. While 
they commonly taught Latin, they also provided instruction 
in English, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, geography, sur- 
veying, and other subjects. They were quite flexible in their 
organization, permitting students to enroll and study with 
considerable freedom. In many cases they received public 
support. Although the college-preparatory course was the 
backbone of most of them, they did not fail to provide in a 
very large measure for a practical type of higher education 
which the democracy needed. 

Increased de^nocratic needs met by pitblic high schools 
{1 82 1). — During the second quarter of the nineteenth cen- 
tury, however, the need for more public institutions to meet 
the general demands for practical secondary education re- 
sulted in the establishment of what we now know as high 
schools, although they were often called free academies when 
first established. The first of these -schools was opened in 
Boston in 1821 and took the name English High School 
in 1824. Its purposes as providing an extension upwards of 
the work of the English grammar grades and as a public 
counterpart of certain aspects of the private academy are 
suggested in the following quotation from the report of the 
Boston school committee of 1821 : 

The mode of education now adopted and the branches of 
knowledge that are taught at our English grammar schools are 
not sufficiently extensive nor otherwise calculated to bring the 
powers of the mind into operation nor to qualify a youth to fill 
usefully and respectably many of those stations, both public and 
private, in which he may be placed. A parent who wishes to give 
a child an education that shall fit him for active life, and shall 
serve as a foundation for eminence in his profession, whether 
Mercantile or Mechanical, is under the necessity of giving him a 
different education from any which our public schools now furnish. 



lO TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

Hence many children are separated from their parents and sent 
to private academies in this vicinity to acquire that instruction 
which cannot be obtained at the public seminaries. (5 : 299-300) 

Practical purposes later sttbordinated to training for college 
entrance. — Similar quotations from the records concerning 
other early high schools indicate the same general character- 
istics ; that is, they provided an extension upward of the 
general work of the elementary school. They were not es- 
sentially college-preparatory schools, but were planned to 
give training for those who would go directly into '' Mer- 
cantile or Mechanical " pursuits. This direct and practical 
aim became subordinated later to the college-preparatory aim 
which has dominated the high schools until recently. 

Recent recognition of needs of pupils not going to college. 
— In the last few years there has developed a strong tend- 
ency among high-school administrators to formulate aims 
and organize courses of study in high schools for the large 
numbers of students who do not expect to go on to college. 
So strong has this movement become that at least one of 
the leading universities of the country, in recognition of the 
reasonableness of this policy, has so changed its entrance re- 
quirements as to permit practically any high-grade graduate 
of any well-organized and well-conducted high school to enter 
its freshman class. 

It will probably be only a matter of a few years before public 
high schools, at least in the large towns and cities and in the 
more prosperous rural districts, will be considered as schools 
to which students go primarily for the same reason as they 
go to the elementary schools, namely, to secure training that 
will prepare them directly for more effective participation in 
the life of the communities in which they live. 

Commissioner of Editcation anticipates Jiigh-school educa- 
tion for all. — This tendency is discussed in the following 
news letter issued by the United States Bureau of Educa- 
tion in 191 2 : 



PURPOSES OF HIGH-SCHOOL INSTRUCTION 1 1 

The American High School has grown phenomenally in the 
past dozen years, its development in the last two or three years 
being apparently greater than in the remarkable decade just pre- 
ceding. Since the twentieth century opened, the number of public 
high schools has almost doubled, and the number of students is 
easily twice what it was at the beginning of the century. The 
most cheering feature of the whole matter for the American citi- 
zen is the very great increase in the proportion of those who 
go from the grades into the high school. Formerly (only a very 
few years ago, in fact) the high school was chiefly attended by 
children of the rich and moderately well-to-do. To-day nearly 
one fourth of the children who enter the elementary school even- 
tually pass into the high school. The exact figure is 22 per cent 
if negro children are included and 25 per cent if whites only 
are considered. 

The people have shown their appreciation of their high school 
in the most direct way possible — by supporting it unfailingly and 
generously. They have faith enough in it to pay huge sums of 
money year after year that the high school may do greater and 
greater work. More and more attention is being paid to high- 
school education. Million-dollar school buildings are going up 
in American cities — palaces, one might call them, did not the 
word suggest idleness, and there is no idleness in the present- 
day high school. Industry, technical ability, home-making, together 
with the essentials of a cultural education, are being taught to 
our boys and girls in the splendid high schools of to-day on a 
scale that was never dreamed of in the civic life of any nation 
before our time. 

This statement is in striking contrast with Luther's sug- 
gestion to be on the lookout for '' promising lads " for the 
secondary schools, and with the idea of training and select- 
ing leaders that prevailed in the Latin grammar schools in 
England and in the American colonies. 

Example of a high-school policy adapted to all children. 
— The notion of ''high-school training for all children" is 
especially emphasized in some of the vocational and the 
cosmopolitan high schools. The following quotation is an 



12 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

extreme example taken from a report (191 1) by the high- 
school teachers of the Washington Irving High School for 
Girls in New York City. 

WHAT WE ARE FOR 

The community sends its children to us expecting them to be 
educated. It raises money and pays it to us in order that the city 
may be uplifted. The parents who support us do not subscribe 
to the theory that a high school is an institution for preserving a 
course of study, or maintaining a system of usages, or keeping up 
a high standard, or training some youngsters to be leaders, or for 
supporting us. The people who are supporting us care little for 
these things. They do care for children. They pay for having the 
young people trained, not for maintaining a given grade of educa- 
tion. They send us bright, stupid, industrious, lazy, well-behaved, 
impudent children, not with the idea that we shall teach those that 
are able and willing to work, not for a decision that such a child 
is not fit for high school, but for having each child improved. 
This is not chiefly a place for those who can succeed without help. 
Such need us less than the others do. A public high school differs 
from an elementary school chiefly in the age of its children. We 
are not elected, we are not paid, to train leaders ; . • . everyone, 
rich or poor, is entitled to our services. A child may be poor in 
brains, in effort, in appreciation, in gratitude, in respect, in all 
which we may have been taught to regard as high-school neces- 
sities. Such a one belongs here. Our inherited high-school theory 
may not accord with this. If so, the theory must disappear. 
Scholarship is not our chief business. Training the children we 
receive and securing more children to train is our business. The 
grade of scholarship which best trains our membership is the grade 
we want. This is not a fixed standard. It is one thing in 19 10, 
another in 191 1. The chairmen of departments will keep it high 
enough ; we need not worry about that. . . . 

We came into this school from many localities. Some of us 
studied much algebra ; some, German ; others, Latin. We never 
studied New York children. We must study them, — their previous 
schooling, their home surroundings, their mental characteristics, — 



PURPOSES OF HIGH-SCHOOL INSTRUCTION 13 

for the purpose of making our algebra, German, or Latin of bene- 
fit to them. We are to break away from the traditional type of a 
study-centered high school. We are a person-centered high school. 
The person is the one we are teaching. We are responsible for 
the success of the student. That is chiefly what we are put here 
for. (10: 585) 

While it is easy to point out certain fallacies and exaggera- 
tions in this quotation, it remains in general as a significant 
formulation of a policy worked out by a high-school principal 
and his teachers to adapt the instruction in their school to 
the needs of all of the pupils who attend it. 

Antithesis between liberal and vocational purposes. — The 
immediately preceding discussion was intended to bring out 
the contrast between the aristocratic, or selective, purposes 
which formerly prevailed in secondary education and the dem- 
ocratic purposes which are coming to prevail. The other con- 
trast (mentioned above on page 7) is between the conception 
of liberal purposes and that of vocational purposes. Ordi- 
narily it is assumed that there is some conflict between these 
two, and the conservative supporters of the old idea of a liberal 
education deprecate the tendency to introduce and emphasize 
studies which are related to present-day economic needs. 

Progressive revision of mea^ting of a liberal education, — 
The insistence of the conservatives upon the old idea of a 
liberal education as necessarily a classical or literary one has 
led advocates of a broader secondary education to reformulate 
the definition of a liberal education in such a way as to justify 
the newer tendencies and thus to disarm the conservatives by 
depriving them of their chief symbol, or badge, of pretended 
superiority. One of the best examples of this revision is the 
following quotation from a paper by Professor E. P. Cubberly 
on the question. Does the present trend of vocational educa- 
tion threaten liberal culture } 

Meaning of ^'' vocatiofial" and ^' liberaV is relative to the individual. 
— The whole question of what are liberal and what are vocational 



14 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

studies can be defined accurately only in terms of individuals. 
What is vocational for one is liberal for another. The study of 
chemistry, for example, which is usually classified with the technical- 
vocational group, and is so for the future chemist or engineer, is 
broadly liberal when pursued by the classical student. The same 
is true of geology, biology, economics, or modern industrial history. 
Conversely, courses in literature, world history, economics, and the 
life and literature of Greece or Rome would be liberal studies to 
the technical or the scientific student. Perhaps no greater mistake 
in terms is made in our educational practice to-day than to say 
that the high-school student who has had four years of Latin, three 
of Greek, four of English, two of ancient and medieval history, 
two of mathematics, and one year of mathematical physics has 
pursued a liberal-culture course of study. As a matter of fact, 
his course has been narrowly technical, in that it leads to but a 
few selected occupations ; and he is in no sense liberally educated, 
for he knows little about the modern world in which he lives. 
Of the great modifying conceptions which have served to dis- 
tinguish the nineteenth century he knows almost nothing, and he 
is ill prepared to take his place as an efficient member of the 
twentieth century. 

Newer studies open liberal and vocational courses to more students. 
— To the speaker there seems very little to fear and very much 
to commend in the present trend toward vocational training, and 
he cannot see that the trend in any way seriously threatens true 
liberal culture. The introduction of courses in mechanic arts, com- 
merce, agriculture, and household arts will attract to the schools 
great numbers who in the past have found little of interest in them, 
and will offer to all classes the chance to combine vocational training 
with a good education. To the speaker it seems indeed unfortunate, 
that so many young people have been and still are compelled to 
choose between a vocation without an education and an education 
without a vocation. That the introduction of these new subjects 
will result in a decreased percentage of our young people studying 
Latin and Greek is not to be denied. Indeed, it is much to be 
hoped. This, however, would be no blow to liberal culture. Some, 
of course, obtain liberal culture with such training, and for them 
it may be the best training possible ; but, on the other hand, many 



PURPOSES OF HIGH-SCHOOL INSTRUCTION 15 

do not, and for such the insistence that such studies are essential 
to liberal training is no longer tenable. 

Modern natural and social sciences give broad outlook upon life, 
— If we conceive of liberal culture as coming from a study of 
those subjects which develop the judgment and understanding, 
enlarge the vision and insight, broaden the human sympathies, 
train for efficient living, and stimulate such intellectual ambitions 
as will make one interested in his life work and good company 
for himself, then liberal culture may come to many different in- 
dividuals from the study of many different things. A conception 
of the theory of evolution and of a few of its applications to 
modern life, such as may be obtained in a study of biology ; the 
great mind-expanding (and I might also add religion-developing) 
results obtainable from a study of astronomy ; a fair understanding 
of economic laws, obtainable from a study of economics ; the grow- 
ing conception of world relationships, such as may be obtained 
from a study of commerce or industrial history ; the wonderful 
results of modern science, as opened up by a proper study of 
physics and chemistry ; the awakening and refining of the prac- 
tical judgment of the girl, such as comes from good courses in 
domestic science and household economics ; or a study of the 
life, manners, art, government, and literature of Greece or Rome, 
such as might be given for nonclassical students, wholly in Eng- 
lish, and in a single year in a modern high school — any one or 
all of these may be liberal studies in the truest sense of the term, 
and the starting point of a life lived in sympathy and in increasing 
contact with the best in our intellectual inheritance. Such studies 
as I have enumerated are both liberal and vocational, according 
to the needs of the boy or girl who studies them.^ (8 : 463-465) 

While this discussion of a liberal versus a vocational educa- 
tion, as presented by Professor Cubberly, is concerned primarily 
v^^ith the currictdum of the high school, yet the general attitude, 
or point of view, v^hich it represents would affect also the work 
of an individual teacher within a given subject. Hence it is 
related to methods of teaching as well. This will be brought 

1 Paragraph headings not in the original. 



l6 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

out in detail in a later chapter on the selection and arrangement 
of material within a given subject. 

Theoretical formulation of the broader purposes of education. 

— In our discussion of the broadening conceptions of the pur- 
poses of high-school instruction we have noted the practical 
importance of the high-school teacher's being aware of the 
trend of events, have traced historically the transition from the 
aristocratic and selective purpose to the democratic purpose, 
and have noted the movement to formulate a revised definition 
of a liberal education so as to relate it to contemporary life. 
As a final step in giving students an appreciation of the 
broader purposes which are coming to prevail, we shall dis- 
cuss briefly a theoretical formulation of the aims of teaching 
which may have more or less practical bearing on methods 
of teaching. The formulation is a slight modification of that 
presented by Professor E. L. Thorndike in his ''Principles 
of Teaching" (1906). 

Ultimate and proximate aims oiitlined. — According to this 
formulation we may distinguish between the ultimate aims and 
the proximate aims of teaching. The former are the large, 
broad, controlling purposes ; the latter include more detailed 
purposes which contribute to the achievement of the former 
but are more directly related to the daily work of the teacher. 
These purposes may be tabulated as follows : 



Ultimate purposes 


Proximate purposes 


I. Social efficiency. 


I. Health. 


a. Economic. 


2. Information. 


b. Domestic. 


3. Habits. 


c. Civic. 


4. Ideals. 


2. Good will. 


5. Interests. 


3. Harmless enjoyment. 





Ultimate purposes, i. Effieieney ijt controlling affairs 
in a social situation. — The first of the ultimate purposes, 
namely, efficiency, suggests the ability to do things effectively, 



PURPOSES OF HIGH-SCHOOL INSTRUCTION 17 

to control and handle affairs, to get results, to achieve and 
accomplish. The qualifying term social suggests that the 
things or affairs that a person needs to be able to control or 
handle are nearly always parts or phases of social situations 
in which division of labor and other forms of relationships 
with people are controlling factors. The subdivision of effi- 
ciency into economic, domestic, and civic is suggested by 
Herbert Spencer's classification of life's activities. It is evi- 
dent that most persons must be efficient in making a living, 
in dealing with their family affairs, and in participating in 
civic or political affairs. 

2 . Efficiency micst be directed by good will, or the endeavor 
to work for the common good. — But efficiency in a social 
situation, or the ability to control and handle affairs, needs to 
be directed toward worthy ends. Hence it is necessary to 
provide for the second ultimate purpose, namely, good will, 
or the desire and endeavor to work for the common good ; 
for a man may be extremely efficient socially, and yet direct 
his ability toward purely selfish ends which are opposed to 
the common good. Unfortunately society is always troubled 
with just such persons, namely, powerful social leaders who 
use their efficiency in controlling the affairs of the social 
group for corrupt purposes. The corrupt political boss is one 
of the best examples of this type. He may control absolutely 
the political affairs of a city or a county or a state for a whole 
generation. He is the most efficient man in the situation; it 
would be absurd to say that he is socially inefficient ; but it is 
perfectly obvious that he is immoral if our standard of morality 
is the desire and endeavor to contribute to the common good. 

3. Efficiency supplemented by training for the harmless 
enjoyment of leisnre time. — But morally directed efficiency 
in handling affairs does not constitute all of life. The proper 
enjoyment of one's leisure time deserves large consideration 
in a scheme of education for persons that do not have to spend 
all of their time in a struggle for existence. Certainly for a 



i8 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

large part of any well-civilized community the problem pre- 
sented by training for leisure is almost as pressing as the 
problem of training for efficiency. For example, consider the 
difficulties presented in this connection in such a large city 
as Chicago, in directing the leisure activities of boys and girls 
between fifteen and twenty-one years of age. Moreover, as we 
regard the successful effort of labor unions and publicists to 
get the working hours of employees reduced, it almost sug- 
gests that the reason for desiring efficiency is to secure leisure ; 
that the latter is the final purpose toward which efficiency is 
directed. 

Proximate aims relate ultimate aims to methods. — When 
we come to consider the ways in which these final, or ultimate, 
purposes may be achieved, we approach the problems of 
method, and as an intermediate step we may consider the more 
immediate, or proximate, purposes to be achieved, namely, 

to give boys and girls health in body and mind, information about 
the world of nature and men, worthy intei'ests in knowledge and 
action, a multitude of habits of thought, feeling, and behavior, and 
ideals of efficiency, honor, duty, love, and service. (0 : 3) 

We shall consider briefly each of these proximate aims. 

I . Health most important but commonly neglected. — The 
importance of health as an immediate aim of instruction is so 
generally appreciated now that if a body of college students 
is asked which is the most important of the five proximate 
aims, they will commonly answer, '' Health." Yet this is not 
always taken into consideration in practice, as shown in the 
following quotation from an article entitled '' College Students' 
Comments on their High- School Training." 

On no one point is there more unanimity than the want of atten- 
tion to bodily health and exefrise ; not one has anything favorable 
to say on this point, and many accuse the school i?i extenso of its 
dereliction in physical education. [One student writes :] 



PURPOSES OF HIGH-SCHOOL INSTRUCTION 19 

" During the first three years I do not recall a single suggestion 
by any teacher to get out in the open air — or anywhere else. At 
noon most of us stayed indoors and either strolled up and down 
some very dark corridors or sat at our desks and studied. The 
self -ventilating heating system was then in vogue, and the teachers 
had orders not to open the windows, so that the rooms were often 
stuffy and the pupils drowsy." (11 : 651) 

The individual teacher of the ordinary subjects cannot do 
much of a positive character to improve the health of his 
students. Nevertheless, he can keep their health in mind 
and possibly serve as a source of suggestion for activities that 
contribute to health. Often he would be justified in taking 
up, with the principal of the school, a discussion of the health 
of individual pupils. Certainly he should always endeavor 
to have the classroom and the amount and conditions of 
work such as not to interfere with the health of the students. 

2. Information hnportant, bnt its exclusive emphasis to 
be avoided. — Information is the proximate aim, or purpose, 
that has been most prominent in high-school instruction. 
This is largely due to the fact that it is very easy to de- 
vise tests, or examinations, to determine whether a student 
has applied himself in acquiring information, but difficult 
to do so in the case of certain other proximate aims, such, 
as interests and ideals. Hence, we often find information 
emphasized in subjects where it should be considered rela- 
tively unimportant. 

As a result of this overemphasis we often find an extreme 
reaction against teaching for information at all, which is just 
as unreasonable as the overemphasis which formerly prevailed. 
Extensive and exact information is an important factor in 
nearly all efficient social behavior where ideas play any part. 
In most positions there is no antithesis between knowing 
and efficient doing. But the other proximate aims — namely, 
habits, interests, and ideals — are also important factors in 
social behavior and should not be neglected. 



20 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

3. Special mid general habits to be fixed. — Habits, which 
constitute the third proximate purpose of instruction, are of 
two kinds, special and general. Some high-school subjects 
provide training primarily in the fixing of a multitude of 
special habits. For example, training in linguistic expres- 
sion, either English or foreign, is largely of this sort. Skill 
in using language consists largely in the easy, free, habitual 
use of thousands of detailed forms of expression, each form 
corresponding to a habit. This will be brought out in greater 
detail in a later chapter. Other examples of such special 
habits are found in the motor skill involved in laboratory work. 
Skill in bending glass consists in a multitude of motor habits ; 
likewise skill in making pie crust, in planing a board, etc. 

Among the general habits mentioned by Thorndike are 
habits of self-control, accuracy, steady and logical thought, 
technical and executive habits, habits of being honorable, 
courageous, just, sympathetic, reverent, and modest. Thorn- 
dike himself has been most critical of the possibility of devel- 
oping such general habits, but certainly, to the extent that it 
is possible to develop them, whether they be special or general, 
it is desirable to do so. Thus, it may be impossible to develop 
a general habit of accuracy, but it may be possible to develop 
one habit of accuracy in addition and subtraction, another 
habit of accuracy in verbal description, another habit of 
accuracy in measuring boards, another habit of accuracy in 
weighing substances in quantitative analysis in chemistry, 
another habit of accuracy in transcribing stenographic notes. 
Habitual accuracy is an important proximate educational aim 
in each of these cases. 

4. Ideals more generalized than habits. — The develop- 
ment of ideals as a proximate aim of instruction is closely 
related to the development of habits, so far as the latter may 
be generalized. Thus, we aim to cultivate ideals of efficiency, 
honor, courage, justice, etc., as well as the corresponding 
habits. While there may be some question as to the extent 



PURPOSES OF HIGH-SCHOOL INSTRUCTION 21 

to which gejteral habits may be cultivated, there is less doubt 
concerning the possibility of developing general ideals. To 
be sure, it may not be possible to have one ideal of accuracy 
that will be applied in all the cases cited above under habits 
of accuracy ; for an ideal of mathematical accuracy is some- 
what different from an ideal of accuracy in measurement, 
since the former is usually exact, while the latter is always 
approximate. Moreover, the degree of desirable approximate 
accuracy varies with the character of the measurement being 
made. It may be very rough in measuring boards but exact 
to the third decimal fraction of a very small weight in quan- 
titative chemical analysis. Hence the carpenter's ideal of 
accuracy might be different from the chemist's. In spite of 
the specialized character of certain ideals, however, there is 
little doubt that there are many ideals, such as those of serv- 
ice, honesty, promptness, etc., which are of very wide and 
general application. 

Ideals should involve belief and resolve, and lead to habits. 
— In developing ideals there are four special considerations 
to be kept in mind : In the first place, the proximate aim of 
information should not be permitted to overshadow the pur- 
pose of fixing an ideal in the student's character. For ex- 
ample, if history is to serve as a vehicle of ideals, the ordinary 
method of teaching so as to acquire encyclopedic historical 
information must give place to one in which selected social 
situations are dealt with so concretely and thoroughly as to 
bring out the human relationships, moral conflicts, and pos- 
sible appeals to human sentiment that are involved. This 
suggests a second consideration, namely, that an ideal, to be 
of much practical value, must not exist for a student merely 
as an abstract formula, but must be coupled with a strong 
belief in its validity and with a more or less enthusiastic re- 
solve to carry it out in practice. In the third place, students 
need to be led to see how manifold the applications of the ideal 
are — to see opportunities for carrying out, in the everyday 



22 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

situations in which they Uve, such ideals as service, hon- 
esty, and thoroughness. Finally, it is possible to provide for 
each of these three points and still have the ideal remain 
without much practical outcome in behavior. Hence it is 
important to see that students actually take advantage of the 
opportunities and are required to behave in accordance with 
the ideals which have been established. This leads back to 
the third proximate aim in instruction, namely, habits. 

5, Abiding interests to determine students' desires for 
further experie^ices. — The fifth proximate aim of instruc- 
tion — namely, the development of abiding, or permanent, 
interests — owes its prominence historically to the German 
educational reformer Herbart (i 776-1 841), who introduced 
it into one of his discussions in contrast with the ultimate 
moral purpose of education, in the following words : 

The ultimate purpose of instruction is contained in the notion, 
virtue. But in order to realize the final aim, another and nearer 
one must be set up. We may term it many-sidedness of interest. 
The word intei'est stands in general for that kind of mental activity 
which it is the business of instruction to incite. Mere information 
does not suffice, for this we think of as a supply, or store, of facts, 
which a person might possess or lack and still remain the same 
being. But he who lays hold of his information and reaches out 
for more takes an interest in it. Since, however, this mental ac- 
tivity is varied, we need to add the further determination supplied 
by the term many-sidedness . 

Thus we see that with Herbart the most important proxi- 
mate aim of instruction is to determine and fix in the char- 
acter of the pupil the lines of interest which will occupy 
him in later life. This is in striking contrast with the com- 
mon notion of the purposes of schooling as represented in the 
senior-day exercises at graduation, when the students burn 
their books as an indication that they are forever through with 
the dreary things of school, and are happy to think that never 
again will they have such distasteful matters to deal with. 



PURPOSES OF HIGH-SCHOOL INSTRUCTION 23 

Fortunately the studies and methods in high-school in- 
struction are being so humanized and related to the everyday 
out-of-school interests of normal human beings that the 
possibility of determining and fixing abiding interests for 
pupils is greatly increased. Hence we may look forward 
to the day when most instruction will result in the pupils' 
''laying hold of and reaching out after more" of the types 
of experiences to which the school has introduced or habitu- 
ated them. 

Relation of proximate aims to methods to be determined 
later. — This will conclude our discussion of Thorndike's 
theoretical formulation of the purposes of education. While 
the ultimate purposes — namely, efficiency, good will, and 
harmless enjoyment — may seem to be somewhat abstract 
and to have little direct relation to methods of instruction, 
it should be evident by this time that the proximate aims — 
namely, health, information, habits, ideals, and interests — 
are vital factors in determining what methods of instruction 
shall be used in the various subjects. This will be increas- 
ingly evident in some of the detailed discussions which fol- 
low. In the next chapter we shall take up a consideration 
of certain general aspects of the school as a specialized 
institution set apart to achieve as economically as possible 
the purposes discussed in this chapter. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES 

General statement. — The bibliographical notes at the ends of the 
chapters are not intended to be at all exhaustive or complete. They are 
intended to provide a few references to discussions that are related di- 
rectly to the topics treated in the chapters. 

General discussions of aims and purposes. — i. Bagley, W. C, 
The Educative Process. (The Macmillan Company, 1905.) Pp. 40-65. 
One of the best brief critical discussions of various aims. 

2. Spencer, Herbert. Education, chap, i, entitled What Knowl- 
edge is most Worth. (1859.) The most classic discussion of educational 
aims written in English during the nineteenth century. 



24 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

3. Thorndike, E. L. Principles of Teaching. (A. G. Seller, 1906.) 
Pp. 1-7. 

4, Thorndike, E. L. Education. (The Macmillan Company, 191 2,) 
Pp. 9-52. A very original discussion of many alms. 

Historical discussions. — 5. Brown, E. E. The Making of our 
Middle Schools. (Longmans, Green & Co., 1902.) The standard 
history of grammar schools, academies, and high schools. 

6. Monroe, P. Gyclopcedia of Education. (The Macmillan Com- 
pany, 191 1.) Articles entitled "Grammar Schools," "Academies," 
"High Schools." 

7. Parker, S. C. History of Modern Eleitientary Education. (Ginn 
and Company, 191 2.) Pp. 18-23 on decHne of Latin. Pp. 49-52 on 
grammar schools as selective. 

Recent discussions of high-school tendencies. — 8. Cubberly, E. P. 
Does the Present Trend of Vocational Education threaten Liberal 
Culture.? School Review., September, 191 1, Vol. XIX, pp. 454-465. 

9. Dewey, J. The Educational Situation. (The University of 
Chicago Press, 1902.) Pp. 50-79. 

ID. McAndrew, W., and others. Success in School. School Review., 
November, 191 1, Vol. XIX, pp. 585-595. Extreme statement of the 
idea that the high school exists for the benefit of its students. Answered 
in School Review^ October, 191 2, Vol. XX, pp. 559-563. 

11. SissON, E. O. College Students' Comments on their Own 
High-School Training. School Review., December, 191 2, Vol. XX, 
pp. 649-664. 

12. Snedden, D. The Opportunity of the Small High School. 
School Review., February, 191 2, Vol. XX, pp. 98-110. Endeavors to 
define in a practical way the alms appropriate to small high schools as 
distinguished from those of large schools. 

Also referred to in the chapter. — 13. Herbart, F. Outlines of 
Educational Doctrine. (The Macmillan Company. Originally published 
in 1 841.) 



CHAPTER III 

ECONOMY IN CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 

Main points of the chapter. — i . The school is a complicated 
institution with large opportunities for waste and for economy. 

2. To avoid waste, principles of business management should 
be applied in the classroom. 

3. Routine is necessary for efficiency and economizes time and 
energy. 

4. Individuality, spontaneity, initiative, and reasoning may have 
the same place in a well-routinized school as they have in demo- 
cratic social life. 

5. The principal routine factors are (i) beginning right, (2) seat- 
ing of students, (3) passing to and from recitations, (4) handling 
materials, (5) attention to physical conditions, (6) preserving order. 

Need to correlate progressive theory and efficient practice. 

— In the preceding chapter we established a general point 
of view concerning the purposes of high-school instruction 
which will assist us in judging the value of processes of 
instruction to be discussed in later portions of the book. 
There is danger, however, that educational leaders and stu- 
dents will overemphasize the somewhat idealistic conceptions 
presented in the preceding chapter, and will neglect to keep 
in mind the practical school situation in which such theories 
have to be carried out. This statement does not imply that 
the more progressive policies cannot be carried out in actual 
practice, but it does imply that the success of progressive 
reforms will depend upon the efficiency with which reformers 
apply principles of business management in organizing their 
instruction. Consequently, in order to secure a proper balance 
in the mind of the reader between an enthusiasm for broader 

25 



26 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

modern ideals in education, on the one hand, and principles 
of practical management, on the other, this chapter dealing 
with economy in classroom management is introduced at 
this point. 

Teacher should avoid misdirected time and energy. — The 
school is a complicated, specialized institution, maintained 
by society to achieve certain specific results. The classroom 
activities should be planned carefully to make sure that they 
are directed toward securing these results most economically 
and effectively, and the possibilities of misdirected time, effort, 
and energy should be reduced to a minimum. 

Principles of busijiess management should be applied. — 
In any other institution or organization or plant which is 
as complicated as the school, efficiency depends to a large 
extent upon careful attention to the details of management. 
In a manufacturing plant, for example, great care is taken 
to provide for the most economic placing and handling of 
material, so as to eliminate waste motion. A manufacturer 
may enormously increase the efficiency of his plant by in- 
venting a device that will require fewer operations to produce 
an article, or will produce several articles by the same num- 
ber of operations as formerly produced 'but one. If such 
principles of economy are important in factories, where the 
product that is wasted or economized is material, they are 
much more important in the school, where the product to 
be wasted or economized consists of human lives. No fac- 
tory deals with such precious raw material as does the 
school ; hence in no other process is it so important to 
give careful attention to the problems of waste and economy 
as in education. 

Routinize mechanical aspects ; nse jtidginent in variable 
aspects. — The sources of waste in classroom work have 
been divided by Professor Bagley into two principal types : 
The first type includes those where the waste is due to fail- 
ure to organize properly certain mechanical aspects of the 



ECONOMY IN CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 2/ 

classroom activity. To this type he apphes the term roittine 
factors. The second type includes those sources of waste 
which are due to failure to adjust the classroom activities 
to the constantly varying capacities, interests, and responses 
of the students. To these aspects of school work Bagley 
applies the term jitdgnient factor's. The routine factors 
include those matters that recur in approximately the same 
form from day to day and which can be advantageously sys- 
tematized, organized, and reduced to mechanical habits. The 
judgment factors, on the other hand, are constantly varying, 
and require of the teacher constant alert exercise of judg- 
ment in order to avoid misdirected time and energy. 

List of principal roictine and jndgment factors. — The 
principal matters to which attention should be given from 
the standpoint of routine are the following : 

1 . Getting started right the first day. 

2. Seating of students. 

3. Passing to and from recitations. 

4. Handling materials. 

5. Attention to physical conditions. 

6. Maintenance of order. 

The principal judgment factors are related to making pro- 
visions for individual differences in capacities and securing 
concentrated attention in the right direction. This chapter will 
discuss the elimination of waste through proper organization 
of the routine factors. The judgment factors will be consid- 
ered in several later chapters. 

Reasoning and individuality may have the same place in a 
well-routinized school as in social life. — Before taking up a 
detailed discussion of the routine factors, we shall endeavor 
to justify the '' business conception " of school-keeping which 
has been outlined above, since, according to many idealistic 
educators, ''factory standards " and "machine processes " have 
no place in the school. They use these words as terms of 
reproach, and always speak of the '' ideal school " in terms of 



28 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

freedom, spontaneity, initiative, reasoning, etc. Their point 
of departure for emphasizing the latter is a notion of demo- 
cratic society in which these elements of freedom etc. have 
unrestrained operation. I shall endeavor to show th.3.t free- 
dom, spontaneity, hidividuality , initiative, a7id reasoning 
have the same place in a zvell-rontinized school as they have 
in democratic social life. This can be done to advantage in 
connection with Bagley's answers to the arguments that have 
been advanced against routinizing any phases of school work. 

(1:32) 

Democi'atic social organization often disregards individu- 
ality. — The first two objections that Bagley cites and refutes 
are that "mechanical organization disregards the individuality 
of the child " and that, since it is imposed from without, '' it is 
an expression of arbitrary and despotic rule." The answer 
to this objection is that even in a democratic society social 
organization does the same thing as far as the individual is 
concerned. Society and its official representatives set definite 
lines within which the individual must behave. To him these 
lines may appear '' arbitrary and despotic " and may seem to 
'' disregard his individuality" ; but he has to conform. Thus, 
a driver of a vehicle in the crowded streets of Chicago can- 
not make a crossing without the permission of the traffic 
policeman. Doubtless he would often prefer to dash ahead, 
after the policeman has blown his whistle to stop traffic in 
his direction. Doubtless it appears '' arbitrary and despotic " 
when the policeman makes him take a long turn in going 
around a corner, instead of '' short-cutting " across. But the 
traffic regulations, personified in the traffic policeman, are 
great social time-savers. When, as an experiment, the police- 
men were removed for a few minutes one day in the congested 
down-town district, it required only a short time for all traffic 
to come to a standstill, because the '' individuality " of the 
drivers, chauffeurs, and motormen was given full sway and 
the '' despotic rule " of the social guardians abolished.. 



I 



ECONOMY IN CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 29 

Efficieiit spontaneity may be enconraged by routine respon- 
sibilities. — Another objection which is advanced against 
providing for routine in school work is that it '' discourages 
spontaneous effort." If this be true, it is just as true of 
democratic social life as it is of the school. In our own modern 
democratic life all activities are organized and nearly every 
person operates as part of some organization, whether it be the 
government, or a business house, or simply a family. As a rule, 
the individual who is working in an organization has certain 
lines prescribed for him, within which he may be as ''intel- 
ligently spontaneous " as he is capable of being. The buyer 
for a department in a large business concern or the head of 
a government office has certain definite routine responsibili- 
ties, but it is doubtful whether this interferes with his effi- 
cient spontaneity in perfecting his own work. The testimony 
of many persons would indicate just the opposite, namely, 
that definitely fixed routine responsibilities may act as stimuli 
to spontaneous effort instead of acting as deterrents. 

Routine does not necessarily eliminate rational methods. 
— Another objection that is sometimes urged against routin- 
izing any school activities is that '' mechanical organization in 
matters properly routine tends to spread to matters of a 
different nature." Unfortunately this is true in the case of 
many teachers and administrators. It is to be regretted that 
there are many educational extremists who tend to line up 
in either one of the following columns. 

Extreme formalists Extreme idealists 

1. All routine, no freedom. i. All freedom, no routine. 

2. Emphasize formal subjects, 2. Emphasize content subjects, 

neglect content subjects. neglect formal subjects. 

3. Emphasize memorizing, neg- 3. Emphasize reasoning, neg- 

lect reasoning. lect memorizing. 

But it is not necessary to be either an extreme formalist or 
an extreme idealist. It is possible to provide for an adequate 



30 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

study of the content subjects by methods that involve reason- 
ing, and at the same time to provide for routinizing those 
phases of classroom management in which it will result in 
economy of time and effort. 

Habits free the mind for reasoning. — The point just 
mentioned is related to a final objection, namely, that " rou- 
tine, or habit, antagonizes reason." By habit we mean the 
tendency to react to situations in approximately the same 
ways as we have reacted to similar situations before. By 
reasoning we mean the tendency to reflect concerning re- 
adjusting or modifying our reactions to situations — to think 
out new methods 'of dealing with problematic situations. 

The tendency to focus attention on either one or the other 
of these two phases of behavior, namely, habit and reason- 
ing, is brought out in an interesting way in comparing two 
definitions of education, one by William James (i 842-1910) 
and the other by Profe.ssor John Dewey, two of the foremost 
American writers on psychology. In his "Talks to Teachers 
on Psychology " (p. 29) James says, '' Education is the organ- 
ization of acquired habits of conduct and tendencies to behav- 
ior," and on page viii he says, " The aim of education is to 
make useful habits automatic." Here we have the emphasis 
placed on the habit element in education. On the other hand, 
Dewey says : '' Education is the reconstruction of experience." 
Here the emphasis is placed, not on the fixing of former 
methods of behavior, but on the breaking up of habits and 
the readjustment of one's old methods of behavior to meet 
new and changing situations. 

The apparent contradiction involved in these two defini- 
tions of education disappears, however, when we get a com- 
plete statement from one of the authors, in which both 
factors, habit and reason, are taken into consideration. Thus, 
James says : 

We must 7nake atifomatic and habitual,, as early as possible, as 
many usefid actions as we can. . . . The more of the details of our 



ECONOMY IN CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 31 

daily life we can hand over to the effortless custody of automatism, 
the more our higher powers of mind will be set free for their own 
proper work. There is no more miserable human being than one 
in whom nothing is habitual but indecision, and for whom the 
lighting of every cigar, the drinking of every cup, the time of 
rising and going to bed every day, and the beginning of every bit 
of work, are subjects of express volitional deliberation. Full half 
the time of such a man goes to the deciding, or regretting, of 
matters which ought to be so ingrained in him as practically not 
to exist for his consciousness at all. If there be such daily duties 
not yet ingrained in any one of my readers, let him begin this very 
hour to set the matter right. (2: 122) 

This quotation gives the true relation to establish between 
habit and reasoning, and may well furnish a motto for class- 
room activity, namely, '' Make habitual, as early as possible, 
as many useful acts as you can, in order that the minds of 
teachers and children may be free to consider problems that 
are worth reasoning about." We shall now proceed to apply 
this motto to the various routine aspects of classroom man- 
agement which were outlined above on page 27. 

Begin right the first day. — The first consideration in 
classroom management from the standpoint of routine is 
to get started right the first day. As James advises in the 
last sentence in the quotation given above, ''begin this very 
hour to set the matter right." In other words, the time 
to set matters right is at the beginning. Any neglect of this 
advice results in lost ground which can only be recovered later 
by sacrifice of time and energy. James gives the following 
rule in this connection : ''In the acquisition of a new habit 
... we must take care to launch ourselves with a decided 
initiative." Applied to the first day at school, this rule means 
that work should start off with a vigorous attack by pupils 
and teacher. It means that it is important to have the im- 
pressions of the first day be those that are to persist and 
give the keynote for the rest of the term. 



32 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

Become acquainted in advance zvith the local situation. 
— In order to be able to do this, the beginning teacher, or 
a teacher in a new situation, needs to get on the ground 
some days before school opens and to familiarize himself thor- 
oughly with the situation in general and in detail. This should 
include a study of the community, of the recent history of 
the school, of the ideals and policy of the present adminis- 
tration, of the building (with its classrooms, assembly ar- 
rangements, laboratories, gymnasium, heating and ventilating 
systems), of the school library and other neighboring library 
facilities. It would include also a careful examination of the 
course of study and of the annual and daily programs. This 
should lead to a definite planning of the work to be covered 
for the whole term in each subject or with each class. If it 
is the teacher's first year in teaching, he would do well to 
advise with several experienced teachers concerning the best 
pace with which to advance with the various classes. 

Plan definite activities for the first day. — Having got 
the general situation in mind, he should plan in detail the 
work of the first week and be prepared to use the first class 
meeting for purposes of serious instruction. In order to do 
this he will have to make sure that the necessary materials 
are on hand, including possibly chalk, paper, maps, speci- 
mens, or whatever may be required. 

The work of the first day may include three elements : 
(i) steps to acquaint the teacher with the students, (2) steps 
to acquaint the students with the general plans of the teacher, 
(3) some actual instruction. Any of these elements might 
occupy the whole period, but it is better to provide partially 
for each than to give up the whole period to any one. In 
order to provide for the first the teacher should have on 
hand a supply of cards or blanks, on which he asks the 
students to give certain definite information for which he 
has placed questions on the blackboard. To provide for the 
second he may present on the board, or in a talk, or by means 



ECONOMY IN CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 33 

of mimeographed copies, an outline of what the course will 
cover. This should not be a dry abstract, but should be 
sufficiently concrete and interesting to be understood by the 
pupils, who as yet may know nothing about the subject. 
Students like to know '' whither they are bounds" and a 
concrete presentation of some of the problems to be con- 
sidered will help them in appreciating the general trend of 
the work as it develops during the term. 

First-day ins trice tion ; reviezv or intivduction. — The third 
phase of the work of the first day — namely, instruction — 
may with advantage assume either of two forms : It may be a 
review discussion of the previous work of the students in the 
subject to be studied, and of related experiences, or it may be 
a conversational introduction to the new work. It is hard to 
imagine a subject in which either of these practices could 
not be followed to advantage ; mathematics, foreign language, 
history, science, literature — all offer excellent opportunities 
for such introductory treatment. 

With the first day used effectively in some such ways as 
have been suggested, the first step has been taken in the 
direction of economizing time and energy. 

Assigned seats for pupils save time. — The second routine 
aspect of classroom management concerns arrangements for 
the seating of students for recitations. This matter is not so 
important in high school as it is in the elementary school, 
but it deserves some consideration in the former. If pupils 
are assigned regular seats, it makes for economy in a number 
of ways. In the first place, it enables the teacher to become 
acquainted with the pupils in a very short time. It also en- 
ables the teacher to take the attendance by a rapid inspection, 
thus saving the time that is often wasted in calling the roll. It 
facilitates returning papers, as these can be distributed to the 
places before the class assembles, or can be passed to the rows 
in a very short time. If only a few minutes are saved each day 
in this way, the total saving in the long run may be enormous. 



34 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

Congestion relieved by routinizing passing. — The passing 
of pupils to and from recitations is a source of considerable 
waste of time. This waste usually occurs outside of the rooms, 
however ; hence it is not so much a problem of classroom 
management as of general supervision. The passing from 
an assembly room may be organized by requiring rows to 
pass out in a certain order, thus saving several minutes. 
Similar precautions in congested corridors may also save time. 

Tardiness results from congestion. — One of the results 
of confusion in passing between recitations is tardiness. 
Some of this is necessary, but much of it results from the 
general spirit of loitering which is encouraged by congestion. 
It is difficult to offer any helpful positive suggestions to 
reduce such tardiness, but there is one negative warning — 
don't lock the door to keep out late comers. In view of 
the well-known dangers from panic and fire it seems childish 
to offer this warning ; yet in high schools and colleges it is 
periodically necessary for the administrative officers to send 
it out to instructors who have been violating the rule. Some 
instructors do not permit tardy pupils to enter. The disadvan- 
tages of this practice are that it often works an injustice to 
a student who is necessarily tardy and it takes the time of 
the instructor in arranging to have the tardy student make 
up the work. Some instructors count so many tardinesses as 
an absence, and require extra work to make this up. Some 
depend upon moral suasion in the form of discussions con- 
cerning the importance of promptness in social life, and call 
attention to such matters as the use of time clocks in fac- 
tories and the financial loss from being late. 

Economy in handling materials. Laige savings from slight 
variations. — The third routine factor to be considered is 
the handling of materials. This is important in laboratory 
work in the natural sciences, in shop work, in theme work 
in composition classes, in the use of libraries, and in connec- 
tion with notebooks, Enormous savings may be effected by 



ECONOMY IN CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 35 

a very slight change in equipment or methods of handhng 
materials. A most striking example of this from the elemen- 
tary school is the introduction of slates and blackboards and 
printed copy slips at the beginning of the nineteenth cen- 
tury. Up to that time quill pens were used, and each student 
went to the teacher's desk when necessary and had the 
teacher write a '' copy " or a problem in his manuscript book. 
Two hours of the teacher's time each day was commonly taken 
up in making pens and setting copies. The introduction of 
slates and blackboards and the use of printed copy slips freed 
nearly all of this time, so it could be used for purposes of 
instruction — a most striking example of how improvement 
in routine or in the mechanical aspects of school work may 
make possible increased attention to the judgment factors. 

System m handling laboratory apparatus aitd supplies. — 
In connection with laboratory work, examples of waste due 
to failure to provide for the proper handling of materials are 
constantly coming under observation. An example occurred 
in a domestic-science lesson in which it was necessary to use 
thermometers at a certain stage of the experiment. Most of 
the students reached this stage at the same time, and got to 
wrangling in trying to provide themselves with thermom- 
eters from one drawer where the supply was kept. This 
waste should have been avoided by having the thermometers 
distributed in advance or by a monitor shortly before they 
were needed. The general problem of economy in handling 
laboratory materials is discussed at length in Lloyd and 
Bigelow's ''Teaching of Biology" (4) ; this should be read 
by all beginning science teachers and the general spirit of 
the directions carried out in all laboratories (biological, chemi- 
cal, and physical) and in domestic science. Unless careful 
steps are taken to avoid it, there is probably more time wasted 
in laboratory work than in any other type of high-school exer- 
cise. If there is the least opportunity, many pupils will spend 
their time in ''monkeying" and "fooling around" instead 



36 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

of attending to business ; and often, even when they seem 
to be attentively working, their minds are off woolgathering 
in ways that would not be tolerated or even be possible in a 
recitation in mathematics or history or foreign language. 

Example of waste and economy in manual-training shops. 
— The general plans for laboratory management which have 
been discussed may be applied to shop work in manual train- 
ing and household arts and to work in drawing. In all of 
these subjects the arrangements should be so systematized 
that the students have practically all of the period to use for 
concentrated work instead of being delayed in securing ma- 
terials ; yet I have seen a whole manual-training class wait 
while the instructor sawed out boards on a circular saw into 
pieces for the students to use. The amount of time which it 
takes to make adequate preparation for classes is suggested 
by the statement of another manual-training teacher, who 
said that he had to work all day every Saturday getting out 
materials for the classes to use during the next week. 

English teachers seeking economical methods in them,e 
work. — One of the most striking examples of attention to 
the problem of waste of time and energy in connection with 
routine matters is the recent agitation among teachers of 
English regarding the reading and correcting of themes. 
These teachers have suddenly become conscious of the fact 
that they have been doing an overwhelming amount of work 
with no commensurate return, and are trying to discover 
whether better results can be secured with less expenditure 
of time through the use of improved routine devices. The 
National Council of English Teachers has been considering 
the matter for some time, and their discussions are rapidly 
producing results. 

Devices for ^^ 7'ed-ink economy'' ifi composition work. — An 
account of some of the time-saving devices in English com- 
position is contained in an article entitled ' ' A Composition 
on Red Ink," from which the following quotations are taken: 



ECONOMY IN CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 3/ 

Red ink is to our profession as drugs are to the medical profes- 
sion. We cannot, or think we cannot, get along without it. But 
these are well-nigh drugless days. The medicine cabinet is smaller 
than it used to be. . . . I do not look to see red-inkless days ; yet 
the time may come, and soon, when shallower ink bottles will be the 
mode. ... I would gladly hasten the coming of such a time, and 
with this laudable purpose in mind I shall jot down all the ways I 
can think of in which red-ink economy may be practiced. . . . 

1 . Call for less W7itten zvork. We have been composition mad 
for ten years. Never mind what Harvard thinks and does. . . . 
There is such a thing as overtraining. A few furlongs of the right 
sort of composition may be vastly more effective than as many 
miles of the humdrum variety. 

2. Call for shorter themes. ... A large amount of necessary 
training can just as well be carried on through the writing of twenty- 
minute or half-hour compositions, provided most of these . . . are 
written leisurely [and] carefully. 

3. Use the wastehasket. But let [it] stand in front of the desk, 
not behind it. Don't put written work in it yourself ; let the pupils 
put it in. . . . This applies to [some of] the written work done in 
class. . . . Pupils . . . can be made to understand that while it is 
good to have one's work carefully criticized, much can be gained 
by simply writing as well as one knows how. . . . 

4. Use college binders^ preserving in them all exercises done at 
home. Let the pupils keep these binders. Why 1 Because you 
must insist that before writing composition number two they ex- 
amine composition number one and see what red-ink suggestions 
have been made. Otherwise, being but children, they will make 
the same mistakes over and over, which must be corrected over 
and over. (7: 273-277) 

Reflecting lantern iLsed to place theme before class. — The 
teachers of composition are also interested in securing ma- 
terial equipment which will assist them in their work. For 
example, they are interested in using a reflecting lantern by 
means of which a large part of a page from a theme may be 
thrown upon a screen for class criticism. Such a single object 
as the center of attention for discussion is superior to any 



38 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

other arrangement for getting the same material before the 
whole class. The teacher by using a pointer can easily and 
quickly direct the attention of all students to the same point. 
Lanterns which project an object eight inches square are now 
on the market. 

Library economy ; adeqtiate equipment and management 
and definite assignments necessary. — The equipment and 
management of school libraries is another routine matter of 
considerable importance. It is probably better not to attempt 
to use the library at all for regularly assigned readings, than 
to have it managed in such a way that students waste hours 
of time trying to get the material to be read. A working 
library, equipped with several copies of books definitely usa- 
ble in connection with class work, and properly catalogued 
and managed by a trained attendant, should be an essential 
part of every city high school. Such a provision is impossible 
in many high schools, but even where it is approximated, 
there is often enormous waste in using the library, owing to 
the failure of the teachers to provide for the routine aspects 
of the work. The principal errors are the following: (i) 
failure to '' reserve " the copies of a book before referring 
the class to it ; (2) referring a large class to a book of which 
there may be only one or two copies ; (3) making the refer- 
ences so vaguely that a student has to spend considerable 
time in finding what he is to read. 

Historical so2irces nsed economically in class. — An inter- 
esting example of economy in the use of supplementary 
reading is found in the use of sources in history by Mr. A. F. 
Barnard of the High School of The University of Chicago. 
As aids in the study of Greek and Roman history Mr. Bar- 
nar4 has in his classroom copies of each of the following : 
the Iliad, translated by Lang, Leaf, and Myers ; Herodotus, 
translated by Rawlinson ; and Xenophon's Memorabilia. 
When such a topic as the development of Greek religion is 
being studied, the copies of the Iliad are distributed on 



ECONOMY IN CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 39 

the desks while the students are assembhng. When the 
earher phases of Greek reUgion are to be discussed, the 
students are asked to open the Ihad to a definite page 
and Hne and to read. In the Herodotus and Xenophon the 
excerpts are read by the teacher at the appropriate places in 
the discussion. Thus, in a moment, without a second being 
wasted in getting at the books, the source material is placed 
before the pupils just when it can be used to best advantage. 
Pupils are expected to fix the results of the reading and dis- 
cussion by taking notes, for which purpose a brief outline is 
generally placed on the blackboard as a guide. 

Brevity and conciseness necessary in economical nse of 
notebooks. — The economical use of notebooks is another 
routine factor of considerable importance. Notebooks are 
used in high schools as records of library reading, of labora- 
tory work, and occasionally of lectures. There is little doubt 
that the keeping of voluminous, carefully written notes is a 
waste of the student's time. On the other hand, it is evident 
that a brief, concise record of the student's thought or reac- 
tions is desirable. The problem is to avoid the former and 
secure the latter, for even when the brief, concise, original 
statement by the student is asked for, he is likely to sub- 
mit a voluminous copied statement instead. The desired end 
may be attained by some device which necessitates sub- 
divisions or paragraphs that make the items in the report 
stand out clearly, and requires the use of concise forms of 
expression by the student. 

Class outlines and syllabi to be niinieographed by skilled 
operator^ not dictated. — As a final topic under the discus- 
sion of economy in using materials w^e shall consider the 
value of using machines for manifolding copies of lists of 
assigned readings, of laboratory directions, of class outlines 
and syllabi, etc. It is not uncommon for teachers to con- 
sume the time of pupils by dictating such material instead 
of having it printed in some way. Every large high school 



40 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

should have such mechanical devices and employ such cleri- 
cal help as is necessary to manifold copies of all material 
that can be manifolded to advantage. The principal of the 
high school should see that this is done, and should stimu- 
late the teachers to take advantage of the opportunity instead 
of waiting for the teachers to become so much interested in 
the matter that they request such assistance. The ordinary 
Edison rotary mimeograph is excellent for this purpose. 
From one well-cut stencil hundreds of clear copies may be 
run off in a few minutes. The work should be done by a 
person who has developed skill in the operations. 

Teacher may use simple, inexpensive dnplicator. — In case 
there is no central office in which a skilled operator does 
the manifolding for the whole school, it is possible for a 
relatively unskilled teacher to manifold his own material by 
using a duplicator or hektograph. Such an arrangement sim- 
ply involves making one handwritten or typewritten copy, 
laying this on a specially prepared surface so that an ink im- 
pression is left, then removing the copy and pressing sheets 
of paper upon the impression. Fifty or more copies may thus 
be transferred without any special skill being required. An 
inexpensive duplicator could probably be easily secured through 
a local stationer, or even a homemade hektograph constructed 
by following one of the current recipes. 

The manifolding of directions, syllabi, etc. not only saves 
much time but also stimulates more definite and careful or- 
ganization of the courses of instruction. Furthermore, it 
removes many elements of uncertainty in assignments. If 
the assignments for a term's work are definitely made out 
in this way, the students have no occasion for misunder- 
standing what is expected of them. 

This completes our discussion of economizing time and 
energy in the handling of materials. We have taken up 
only a few examples from laboratory and shop work, compo- 
sition courses, the use of libraries and notebooks, and the 



ECONOMY IN CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 41 

manifolding of outlines. Many other examples could be con- 
sidered to advantage, but enough has been said to demon- 
strate the importance of the topic and to suggest some of 
its practical possibilities. 

Proper ventilation and lighting conserve energy. — The 
fifth routine factor to be considered in economizing time 
and energy is attention to the physical conditions of the 
classroom. This is important not only from the standpoint 
of the temporary and permanent effect upon health, but also 
from the standpoint of waste of energy. If a room is poorly 
ventilated or lighted, the energy of the students which is 
available for concentrated study is diminished. 

Teacher rnay supplement ventilating system ; iise of moni- 
tor. — The teacher should acquaint himself with the ventilat- 
ing system and try to cooperate effectively in its management. 
If it does not work, he may be able to take steps to sup- 
plement it. For example, in two recitation rooms which I 
have used there was an ample supply of fresh air from 
the inlet in the wall near the ceiling in one end of each 
room. But in each case the outlet was placed in the wall 
near the floor directly under the inlet. As a consequence the 
air circulated very well in one end of the room, but three 
fourths of the room received practically no benefit from the 
system. Upon the suggestion of the teacher a metal deflector 
was made by the engineer and fastened on the inlet in such 
a way as to send the air diagonally across the room, thus pro- 
viding a supply of fresh air for nearly all parts. In case 
there is no ventilating system, the teacher can at least pro- 
vide for boards on the window sills. These will make it pos- 
sible to keep the windows partly open during recitations in 
cold weather. It would also be well to have a monitor in each 
class, who should open the windows wide when the class 
arises to leave for the next recitation, thus providing for 
three or four minutes of thorough ventilation. The teacher 
should not rely upon his own impressions concerning the 



42 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

condition of the air in the room, for his sense of smell soon 
becomes fatigued in such a way that it does not inform him 
of the conditions. 

Arrange so that students do not face the light. — In regard 
to lighting, the teacher's first duty is to arrange so that pupils 
do not sit facing the light. The frequent neglect of this simple 
precaution is very striking. In constructing library reading 
rooms it is not uncommon to find many readers placed so 
that they face low windows. Students often sit voluntarih, 
in such positions that they receive the full glare of the lighi 
directly in their eyes but have their books so placed that 
these receive little illumination. In assuming such positions 
it would seem that they were handicapping themselves pur- 
posely in order to waste as much energy as possible. 

Avoid shadozvs 07t the page. — The second precaution is 
to arrange so that there are no shadows on the page at which 
the pupil is looking. In other words, there should be the 
same degree of illumination all over the page. If this is not 
the case, the pupil of the eye is constantly readjusting itself 
to the different degrees of illumination. This is not only a 
waste of energy, but it is often quite distracting and annoy- 
ing, although the reader may not be clearly conscious of the 
cause of the annoyance. We have extreme examples of this 
variation in illumination on a day when shifting clouds cause 
a rapid alternation of sunshine and shadow. The eyestrain 
under these extreme conditions is quite noticeable. When 
part of the page is well illuminated and the other part in 
deep shadow, the eyes may experience the same phenomenon 
on a smaller scale some fifty to a hundred times in reading a 
single page. 

Single soii7xe of ilhimination best. — The first step usually 
taken to avoid such a situation is to provide that the light 
shall come from a single source. The student can then easily 
sit in such a position that there are no shadows on his page. 
If there are two sources of light, the possibilities of sitting so 



ECONOMY IN CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 43 

as not to have shadows and at the same time not to face a hght 
directly are greatly reduced. If there are a great many near 
sources of illumination, as in a railroad coach at night, the 
page may be streaked with light and shadow. In construct- 
ing schoolrooms it is now quite common to provide that the 
light shall come only from one side (namely, the left), in 
order to avoid shadows. Even if there are several sources 
of light in a room, the teacher, by proper manipulation of the 




HIGH-SCHOOL BUILDING OF THE H-TYPE 

Note the "blind" ends so constructed that the light in the corner rooms all comes 

from one side 

shades and by proper directions to the pupils, can greatly 
reduce the loss of energy which would result from reading 
under conditions that cause strain or distraction. 

Good order an important time-saver. Favored by students. 
— The fifth and final routine factor which we shall consider 
in our discussion of economy of time and energy is good 
order. Failure on the part of students to attend to business 
is an important source of waste in the classroom. As a rule, 
the teacher may assume that if the other conditions of in- 
struction are properly provided for, most of the students will 
favor conditions of good order instead of disorder. There will 



44 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

always be a small minority of the students, however, who are 
not in school for serious purposes and who will make trouble 
if any opportunity arises. 

Avoid opportunities for disorder through proper routine. 

— Hence one of the most important steps in securing good 
order is to eliminate as far as possible the opportunities for j 
making trouble. Some of the most important steps in this I 
direction involve carrying out the directions concerning the j 
routinizing of classroom activity that were presented above. 

If the first day is begun with a businesslike spirit, if there A 
are certain definite tasks to be accomplished concerning which 
there is a clear mutual understanding between teacher and 
pupils, if students are seated to the best advantage, if tardi- 
ness is avoided, if materials are so placed as to obviate waste- 
ful movements, conflicts, and confusion, if the ventilating and 
lighting are so arranged as to contribute to vitality and com- 
fort instead of fatigue, annoyance, and irritability — if all 
these matters are properly provided for, then many oppor- 
tunities for disorder are eliminated. 

Discipline easier in subjects providing definite tasks. — 
The simplifying of the problem of discipline through definite 
tasks which keep all students busy is illustrated in contrast- 
ing a class in algebra with one in history or literature. It is 
a simple matter so to conduct a class in algebra as to have 
every pupil responsible all the time for some definite objec- 
tive work which requires his concentrated attention. It is 
much more difficult to do so with history or literature. Hence 
almost any teacher ought to be able to have constant good 
order in an algebra class but might be in constant difficulty 
with a historv or literature class. 

Discipline depends on teacher s personality ; this is inborn. 

— Apart from proper attention to the routine factors to 
which reference has been made, the maintenance of good 
order depends largely on the teacher's personality. Since per- 
sonality is to such a large extent inborn and not acquired, 



ECONOMY IN CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 45 

it does little good to discuss the aspects of personality that 
make for easy control. Nevertheless, a few statements may 
bring out some helpful suggestions. 

Authority, dignified reserve, and friendliness as factors. 
— The problem of discipline has probably been given the 
most study in connection with certain systems of schools 
that have a more or less continuous history of several cen- 
turies, such as the great English secondary schools and the 
schools of certain Catholic organizations, notably the Brethren 
of the Christian Schools and the Jesuits. The following quo- 
tation from a book by a Jesuit is contained in the '' Essays 
on Educational Reformers," by R. H. Quick, who introduces 
it with the statement that it illustrates how carefully the 
Jesuits have studied the teacher's difficulties. The quotation 
furnishes material for consideration or discussion, especially 
concerning the influence upon discipline of authority, of friend- 
liness, and of dignified reserve on the part of the teacher. 

The master in charge of the boys, especially in playtime, in his 
first intercourse with them has no greater snare in his way than 
taking his power for granted and trusting to the strength of his 
will and his knowledge of the world, especially as he is at first 
lulled into security by the deferential manner of his pupils. 

That master who goes off with such ease from the very first, to 
whom the carrying out of all the rules seems the simplest thing in 
the world, who in the very first hour he is with them has already 
made himself liked, almost popular with his pupils, who shows no 
more anxiety about his work than he must show to keep his char- 
acter for good sense — that master is indeed to be pitied ; he is most 
likely a lost man. He will soon have to choose one of two things : 
either to shut his eyes and put up with all the irregularities he 
thought he had done away with or to break with a past that he 
would wish forgotten and engage in open conflict with the boys 
who are inclined to set him at defiance. These cases are, we trust, 
rare. But many believe with a kind of rash ignorance, and in spite 
of the warnings of experience, that the good feelings of their pupils 
will work together to maintain their authority. They have been 



46 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

told that this authority should be mild and endeared by acts of 
kindness. So they set about crowning the edifice without making 
sure of the foundations, and, taking the title of authority for its 
possession, they spend all their efforts in lightening a yoke of which 
no one really bears the weight. 

In point of fact the first steps often determine the whole course. 
For this reason you will attach extreme importance to what I am 
now going to advise : 

The chief characteristic in your conduct toward the boys during 
the first few weeks should be an ext^'eme reserve. However far 
you go in this, you can hardly overdo it. So your first attitude is 
clearly defined. 

You have everything to observe — the individual character of each 
boy and the general tendencies and feelings of the whole body. 
But be sure of one thing, viz. that you are observed also and a 
careful study is made of both your strong points and your weak. 
Your way of speaking and of giving orders, the tone of your voice, 
your gestures, disclose your character, your tastes, your failings, 
to a hundred boys on the alert to pounce upon them. One is 
summed up long before one has the least notion of it. Try, then, 
to remain impenetrable. You should never give up your reserve 
till you are master of the situation. 

For the rest, let there be no affectation about you. Don't 
attempt to put on a severe manner ; answer politely and simply 
your pupils' questions, but let it be in few words, and avoid con- 
versation. All depends on that. Let there be no chatting with 
them in these early days. You cannot be too cautious in this 
respect. Boys have such a polite, such a taking way with them 
in drawing out information about your impressions, your tastes, 
your antecedents ; don't attempt the diplomat ; don't match your 
skill against theirs. You cannot chat without coming out of your 
shell, so to speak. Instead of this, you must puzzle them by 
your reserve and drive them to this admission : " We don't know 
what to make of our new master." 

Do I advise you, then, to be on the defensive throughout the 
whole year and like a stranger among your pupils ? No ! a thou- 
sand times. No ! It is just to make their relations with you simple, 
confiding, I might say cordial, without the least danger to your 



ECONOMY IN CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 47 

authority, that I endeavor to raise this authority at first beyond 
the reach of assault. (10 : 60-62) 

Example of the importance of tact. — Among other per- 
sonal qualities that are important in maintaining good order 
are tact, decision, and consistency. Lack of tact is illustrated 
by the incident of a high-school teacher who told her pupils 
that they need not come to class next day if they did not have 
their lessons better prepared. The class took her at her word 
and the next day remained quietly studying in the assembly 
room. When the principal asked them for an explanation, 
they gave him the facts and went on studying. The principal 
thought it was a good lesson for the teacher and left her to 
restore matters to their normal condition. 

Importance of decision. — The influence of lack of decision 
is illustrated by the remark often made by a distracted mother 
when she says to her child, '' I don't know what I will do to 
you if you don't behave yourself." No doubt teachers often 
find themselves in the same uncertain condition, but it does not 
improve matters to let the pupils know it. If possible, take 
the time which may be necessary to determine upon the best 
course of action and then proceed to carry out your decision. 

Importafice of consistency . — The influence of lack of con- 
sistency is illustrated by teachers and parents who are always 
threatening but never executing. They announce that certain 
consequences will follow upon certain acts and they are not 
consistent in carrying out their statements. Students very 
soon learn that they are likely to escape the consequences in 
many cases, and are willing to take the chances or to gamble 
on the issue. 

Objective im,personal attit^ide better than emotio.ial storm 
and stress. — In general, teachers will do well to endeavor to 
maintain a purely objective, impersonal attitude in most cases 
of disorder. As a rule the offense is essentially an offense 
against the class or group whose progress is interfered with. 



48 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

As far as possible the notion that it is an offense against 
the teacher, and that a personal conflict between pupil and 
teacher ensues, should be avoided. Occasional outbursts of 
righteous indignation may be necessary, but they should be 
infrequent. For many persons, whether pupils or adminis- 
trators, most emotional storm and stress is an unfortunate 
waste of energy which temporarily impairs their efficiency. 
Hence it should be avoided except in special cases. 

One of the most interesting phases of the work of a 
dean or principal is the attitude of students who are sum- 
moned to the office to discuss the fact that they are falling 
below grade in their studies. Many of them enter as if the 
principal were a pursuing Nemesis ready with a sword to cut 
off their heads and thirsting for their blood. In order to ap- 
pease the terrible monster they begin to say that they cannot 
understand why they have received such low grades, since they 
have been studying most conscientiously. It always astonishes 
them when they discover that the principal is not thirsting for 
their blood, but that, on the other hand, from a purely objec- 
tive standpoint the excuse which they offer makes their cases 
almost hopeless, for if they have been failing when studying as 
hard as they possibly can, there is little hope for improvement. 

Conclusion of discussion of routine. — This will conclude 
our discussion of the economizing of time and energy through 
careful attention to the more mechanical aspects of classroom 
management. Most educational idealists and theorists give 
these problems little attention, but they are important factors 
in the success of every kind of human organization ; hence 
they deserve special consideration in such a complicated social 
organization as the school. 



ECONOMY IN CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 49 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES 

General discussion, i. Bagley, W. C. Classroom Management^ 
its Principles and Technique. (The Macmillan Company, 1907.) The 
best general discussion. All beginning teachers in elementary schools 
should read it carefully. High-school teachers may receive valuable 
general suggestions from it. 

2. James, William. Principles of Psychology. (Henry Holt and 
Company, 1890.) Vol. I, chap, iv, on Habit, especially pp. 120-127. 

Laboratory routine. 3. Greer, W. C. The Teaching of Chemistry 
in Secondary Schools. School Review., 1906, Vol. XIV, pp. 282-286. 

4. Lloyd, F. E. and Bigelow, M. A. The Teaching of Biology. 
(Longmans, Green & Co., 1904.) Pp. 204-228, 312-319, 392-416. 

5. Smith, A., and Hall, E. H. The Teaching of Chemistry and 
Physics in Secondary Schools. (Longmans, Green & Co., 1902.) Pp. 94- 
100, 123-125, 187-206, 289-303, 348-355. 

Composition routine. 6. Barnes, W. The Reign of Red Ink. 
English fournal, March, 191 3, Vol. II, pp. 158-165. 

7. Hitchcock, A. M. A Composition on Red Ink. The English 
fournal., May, 1912, Vol. I, pp. 273-277. 

Ventilation and lighting. 8. Dresslar, F. B. School Hygiene. 
(The Macmillan Company, 191 3.) 

Discipline. 9. Brown, J. F. The American High School. (The 
Macmillan Company, 1909.) Pp. 285-302. Contains select bibliography 
on pp. 301-302. 

10. Quick, R. H. Educational Refoi^mers. (D. Appleton and Com- 
pany, 1890.) Pp. 60-62. Quotation from a Jesuit author. 



CHAPTER IV 

THE SELECTION AND ARRANGEMENT OF 
SUBJECT MATTER 

Main points of the chapter. — i . The material within the sub- 
jects of the curriculum should be adapted to varying social needs. 

2. Social needs vary historically ; hence material adapted only 
to needs that no longer exist should not be retained, and material 
adapted to new needs should be introduced. 

3. Social needs vary between different communities; hence the 
subject matter appropriate in a rural high school is different from 
that appropriate in a city high school. 

4. Social needs vary between different groups of students 
within the same community or institution ; hence the material 
within a single subject (for example, mathematics, English, or 
science) should be varied accordingly. 

5. In selecting topics it is not enough to show that they have 
some value ; it must be clearly demonstrated that they have suffi- 
cient social value to justify the amount of time required to master 
them, and that they are more valuable than other possible topics. 

6. In the content subjects (history, geograph}^, science, etc.) 
it is important to avoid the encyclopedic treatment of many top- 
ics and to provide instead for the thorough, intensive study of a 
few topics. 

a. This will provide that the one tenth of the subject matter 
that is remembered is worth remembering. 

b. It will necessitate a wealth of forgettable details. These 
should be related to and should support the general principle or 
fact which is being taught ; they should not be isolated and 
unrelated. 

7. The order of topics in a subject should be decided by the 
needs, capacities, and interests of high-school students, not by the 

50 



SELECTION OF SUBJECT MATTER 51 

nature of the subject itself or the interests of a specialist in 
the subject. For example, 

a. In high-school mathematics this standard will require the 
inclusion of many practical problems and the mixing of the easier 
topics of algebra and geometry and some arithmetic in the first year. 

b. The first year's work in science should consist of a general- 
science course, which should take its point of departure from prac- 
tical issues in social life and should draw upon the various sciences 
for material which will throw light on these issues. 

Relation to preceding chapters indicated. — In the two 

preceding chapters we developed two fundamental points of 
view which should be coordinated and kept in mind as the 
bases of progressive, efficient high-school instruction. The 
first of these emphasizes the conception of high-school instruc- 
tion as organized on broad democratic lines to train pupils 
for morally directed social efficiency and for the harmless en- 
joyment of leisure time. The second point of view empha- 
sizes the necessity of applying principles of effective business 
management to classroom instruction, in order that progressive 
ideals may be achieved economically and effectively. 

Having gained an idea of the purposes that high-school 
teachers should try to achieve, and the fundamental principles 
of administration that should prevail in the classroom, we 
come to a more direct consideration of methods of teaching. 
Some of the problems involved will be taken up in the fol- 
lowing order: (i) What principles shall guide us in choosing 
the subject matter to be used in order to achieve our pur- 
poses } (2) How do students carry on most economically and 
effectively the various types of learning involved in the types 
of subject matter which we select 1 (3) What incentives shall 
we use in order to get students to apply themselves so as to 
carry on the various learning processes to the best advantage .'* 
In the present chapter we shall take up the first of these 
problems, namely, the determination of the guiding principles 
in the selection and arrangement of subject matter. 



52 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

Widespread interest in selection and " arrangement of 
subject matter. — A thorough acquaintance with the subject 
matter that he is to teach has been generally admitted to be 
an important factor in a high-school teacher's efficiency. In 
fact, those educators who have been most skeptical concern- 
ing the importance of pedagogical training for high-school 
teachers have commonly maintained that a thorough knowl- 
edge of subject matter is the one thing that is necessary. 
This was for a long time the prevailing attitude among col- 
lege professors, and to a large extent among high-school 
teachers themselves. In recent years, however, an increasing 
number of professors and teachers have manifested a strong 
interest not only in the mastery of subject matter but also 
in the discussion of the proper selection and arrangement 
of subject matter for the most effective teaching. This is 
especially evident in the proceedings of associations of the 
teachers of special subjects, such as history and mathematics. 
Notable examples of such discussions are found in the several 
reports issued during the last twenty-five years on the teach- 
ing of history. These include the report of the Madison Con- 
ference of 1892 (which was printed as part of the report of 
the Committee of Ten of the National Education Associ- 
ation), the report of the Committee of Seven of the Ameri- 
can Historical Association (1899), and the report of the 
New England History Teachers' Association (1899). One 
of the latest significant reports on this subject is that of the 
Committee of Five of the American Historical Association, 
published in 19 10. Similarly, in the case of literature, 
science, mathematics, and other subjects there is active 
discussion of the selection and ' arrangement of the subject 
matter that is appropriate for high-school courses. 

Subject matter not to be arranged in inflexible order. — 
This activity is leading to a gradual disappearance of the 
idea that high-school subject matter is largely preordained 
in more or less fixed form, and that the teacher's duty is to 



SELECTION OF SUBJECT MATTER 53 

conduct all children through it by the same road and with 
the same experiences. The newer and more flexible point 
of view may be discussed to advantage under the following 
four headings : 

I. The selection of subject matter in relation to varying 
social needs. 

II. The determination of relative values. 

III. The intensive treatment of fewer topics. 

IV. Organization in terms of the learner instead of in 
terms of the subject itself. 

I. The Selection of Subject Matter in Relation 
TO Varying Social Needs 

Social needs vary historically ; subject matter should vary 
accordingly. — The first point of view from which we shall 
consider the adaptation of subject matter to varying social 
needs is the historical one. As far as the high-school cur- 
riculum as a whole is concerned, the most striking example 
of the change in social needs is in the need for Latin. As 
shown above on page 8, when Latin secured its prominent 
place in the curriculum, in the sixteenth century and earlier, 
it was needed in nearly all pursuits and professions in which 
reading played an important part. At the present time, not 
one student in a thousand of those who enter high school 
will need Latin in anything like the way in which it was 
needed originally. 

Spencer discussed varying social needs in relatio7i to 
English secondary ediicatio7i. — One of the most vigorous 
and influential discussions of the desirability of adapting the 
school curriculum to social needs as they change historically 
is Herbert Spencer's essay entitled '' What Knowledge is 
Most Worth." This essay was published in 1859 as an 
attack on the classical English secondary schools, which had 
continued to teach almost exactly the same subjects in about 



54 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

the same way as had been done in the sixteenth century, 
and had failed to take account of the enormous scientific 
and economic changes that had occurred in the meantime. 
In summarizing his criticism of this practice, Spencer wrote 
as follows : 

That which our school courses leave almost entirely out we 
thus find to be that which most nearly concerns the business of 
life. All our industries would cease, were it not for that informa- 
tion which men begin to acquire as they best may after their edu- 
cation is said to be finished. And were it not for this information, 
that has been from age to age accumulated and spread by unoffi- 
cial means, these industries would never have existed. Had there 
been no teaching but such as is given in our public schools, Eng- 
land would now be what it was in feudal times. That increasing 
acquaintance with the laws of phenomena which has through suc- 
cessive ages enabled us to subjugate nature to our needs, and in 
these days gives the common laborer comforts which a few centu- 
ries ago kings could not purchase, is scarcely in any degree owed 
to the appointed means of instructing our youth. The vital knowl- 
edge — that by which we have grown as a nation to what we are, 
and which now underlies our whole existence — is a knowledge that 
has got itself taught in nooks and corners while the ordained agencies 
for teaching have been mumbling little else but dead formulas. 

Dewey described cuvricuhLin changes in relation to social 
changes. — A more recent notable presentation of the neces- 
sity of adapting the curriculum to social needs as they change 
historically is the first chapter in Professor John Dewey's 
'' School and Society " (i 899). In establishing a general point 
of view from which to regard educational problems, he says : 

Whenever we have in mind the discussion of a new move- 
ment in education, it is especially necessary to take the broader, 
or social, point of view. Otherwise, changes in the school insti- 
tution and tradition will be looked at as the arbitrary inventions 
of particular teachers — at the worst, transitory fads, and at the 
best, merely improvements in certain details ; and this is the plane 



SELECTION OF SUBJECT MATTER 55 

upon which it is too customary to consider school changes. It is 
as rational to conceive of the locomotive or the telegraph as per- 
sonal devices. The modification going on in the method and cur- 
riculum of education is as much a product of the changed social 
situation, and as much an effort to meet the needs of the new 
society that is forming, as are changes in modes of industry and 
commerce. 

It is to this, then, that I especially ask your attention : the effort 
to conceive what roughly may be termed the " new education " 
in the light of larger changes in society. Can we connect this 
" new education " with the general march of events ? If we can, 
it will lose its isolated character and will cease to be an affair 
which proceeds only from the overingenious minds of pedagogues 
dealing with particular pupils. It will appear as part and parcel of 
the whole social evolution, and, in its more general features at 
least, as inevitable. (2 : 20) 

Three types of historical changes affecting selection of 
subject matter. — The point of view which Spencer and 
Dewey discuss for the curriculum as a whole should be 
kept in mind by each high-school teacher in connection 
with the selection of the topics and material within a given 
subject. The topics and methods of treatment that are most 
appropriate now are not the same as they were five hundred 
or one hundred or even fifty years ago in most subjects. 
There are three types of historical changes that are respon- 
sible for this : namely, (i) general social changes such as the 
economic developments that Spencer and Dewey emphasize ; 
(2) changes in the character of the subject itself ; (3) changes 
in the character or selection of the pupils who attend the 
high schools. 

Social changes affecting subject -matter in history. — Con- 
sider, for example, the subject matter to be taught in history 
and civics. 

I. The social changes that are influential here are the 
decline of religious and aristocratic control which for many 



56 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

centuries was dominant in Europe and America ; the cor- 
responding development of democratic control, with the re- 
sulting necessity of developing democratic intelligence ; the 
industrial revolution of the later eighteenth and early nine- 
teenth centuries, which grew out of the development of the 
factory system ; the resulting creation of large industrial cities 
and new political forces ; the new and unsolved problems of 
domestic and civic life which are a consequence of the indus- 
trial development. 

2. The changes in the nature of the subject of history 
itself parallel in a way these larger social changes. Instead 
of the histories of the clergy, such as prevailed in the middle 
ages, or of kings and of military and political events, which 
followed, or of constitutional history, which is still a large 
factor at the present time, history is beginning to be written 
from an economic point of view. In this economic interpre- 
tation of history the large part played in historical develop- 
ment by industrial changes is given special emphasis. 

In the case of the subject matter of civics there is a transi- 
tion from the exclusive discussion of national problems and 
the study of the national constitution to a study of local politi- 
cal and civic problems concerning which the ordinary citizen 
needs to be especially well informed. 

3 . As far as the students who study history are concerned, 
we have the change noted in Chapter I, from the selected 
''promising lads," who would go on to higher professional 
study, to a high-school enrollment that includes nearly all the 
types of students to be found in elementary schools, but many 
of whom will not go beyond the first year of high school. 

Teacher of history shoidd be gidded by these facts. — 
From a study of these facts the beginning high-school 
teacher should learn to realize that the subject matter of 
high-school history is not a preordained, fixed system but is 
subject to large modifications. Hence he should become in- 
telligently critical of the material which he may find in a 



SELECTION OF SUBJECT MATTER 57 

given course of study, especially in the first year, and should 
raise such questions as the following : Does this material 
represent merely a survival of that which was adapted to 
former social conditions ? Has it been carefully selected so 
as to be adapted to present social needs ? Does it take 
account of changes in the subject itself ? Does it best meet 
the needs of the more general class of students to be found 
in the first year of high school, who have had only the ele- 
mentary work in American history and may never take any 
other courses in history ? 

Three stages in the history of botany : medical, systematic, 
evohitionary . — Further illustrations of the selection of sub- 
ject matter from the standpoint of social needs as they vary 
historically may be found in many subjects. The sciences 
furnish some of the best illustrations. Take botany for ex- 
ample. In the Middle Ages and for some time thereafter it 
was pursued primarily as an aid to medical practice. Later 
it became highly specialized as a science in which the classi- 
fication of plants seemed to be the beginning and end of 
all endeavor. And now, in its evolutionary aspects, with its 
investigations of the influences which determine the survival 
of plants, it is fundamentally related to the whole problem of 
agriculture and the supplying of food for the human race. 
In its bacteriological aspects it is vitally related to health. 
. Social value of geometry relatively tmchaiiged in tzvo 
thousand years. — There is one subject in the high-school 
curriculum which is peculiar in its relation to historical 
changes in social conditions. It is geometr)\ As a step 
toward acquiring higher mathematics which may be used 
in higher scientific work or engineering it has increased in 
importance ; but from the standpoint of improvement in 
the subject itself or from the standpoint of its direct ap- 
plied value for students who do not go on to higher mathe- 
matics it has changed very little through more than two 
thousand years. These facts are interestingly set forth by 



58 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

Professor D. E. Smith in his book entitled '' The Teaching 
of Geometry." After quoting a commentary on the work of 
Euchd, who hved about 300 b.c, Smith says : 

This characterizes the work of Euclid, a collection of the basic 
propositions of geometry, and chiefly of plane geometry, arranged 
in logical sequence, the proof of each depending upon some pre- 
ceding proposition, definition, or assumption (axiom or postulate). 
The number of the propositions of plane geometry included in 
the " Elements " [of Euclid] is not entirely certain, owing to some 
disagreement in the manuscripts, but it was between one hundred 
sixty and one hundred seventy-five. . . . The efforts at revising 
Euclid have been generally confined ... to rearranging his material, 
to rendering more modern his phraseology, and to making a book 
that is more usable with beginners if not more logical in its pres- 
entation of the subject. While there has been an improvement 
upon Euclid in the art of bookmaking, and in minor matters of 
phraseology and sequence, the educational gain has not been com- 
mensurate with the effort put forth. With a little modification of 
Euclid's semi-algebraic Book II and of his treatment of propordon, 
with some scattering of the definitions and the inclusion of well- 
graded exercises at proper places, and with attention to the modern 
science of bookmaking, the '' Elements " would answer quite as 
well for a textbook to-day as most of our modern substitutes, and 
much better than some of them. (3 : 52-53) 

Geometry never has had 7n7Lch practical social value. — 
Concerning the practical, or applied, value of geometry for 
students who do not go on to a higher study of mathematics 
or science or engineering, Smith says : 

In view of a periodic activity in favor of the utilities of geom- 
etry, it is well to understand, in the first place, that geometry is not 
studied, and never has been studied, because of its positive utility 
in commercial life or even in the workshop. In America we com- 
monly allow at least a year to plane geometry and a half year to 
solid geometry ; but all of the facts that a skilled mechanic or an 
engineer would ever need could be taught in a few lessons. All 
the rest is either obvious or is commercially and technically useless. 



SELECTION OF SUBJECT MATTER 59 

We prove, for example, that the angles opposite the equal sides of a 
triangle are equal, a fact that is probably quite as obvious as the pos- 
tulate that but one line can be drawn through a given point parallel 
to a given line. . . . [Such] theorems are perfectly fair types of 
upwards of one hundred sixty or seventy propositions comprising 
Euclid's books on plane geometry. They are generally not useful in 
daily life, and they were never intended to be so. There is an oft- 
repeated but not well-authenticated story of Euclid that illustrates the 
feeling of the founders of geometry as well as of its most worthy 
teachers. A Greek writer, Stobaeus, relates the story in these words : 

Some one who had begun to read geometry with Euclid, when he 
had learned the first theorem, asked, ^' But what shall I get by learning 
these things ? " Euclid called his slave and said, " Give him. three obols, 
since he must make gain out of what he learns." (3 : 7-8) 

... it is evident that not more than 25 per cent of propositions 
have any genuine applications outside of geometry, and that if we 
are to attempt any applications at all, these must be sought mainly 
in the field of pure geometry. (3 : 74) 

The actual amount of algebra needed by a foreman in a machine 
shop can be taught in about four lessons, and the geometry or 
mensuration that he needs can be taught in eight lessons at the 
most. The necessary trigonometry may take eight more, so that 
it is entirely feasible to unite these three subjects. (3 : 90) 

Dottbtftd whether geometry is best for many high-scJwol 
pupils. — These extended quotations from such a standard 
authority as Professor Smith may be accepted as stating 
authoritatively the relation of geometry to social needs as the 
latter have varied historically. Professor Smith proceeds to 
argue skillfully for the study of geometry upon other grounds. 
From the standpoint of this chapter, however, the statements 
concerning the small applied value of geometry would sug- 
gest the following conclusion : if, since the development 
of geometry historically, other subject matter has developed 
which is directly related to community needs, and this new 
subject matter can be organized effectively for purposes of 
instruction in the first two years of high school for students 



6o TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

who do not intend to go to college, then it is no longer 
necessary to give courses in geometry to such students. 
Hence, though geometry may have been the best mathe- 
matics available for youth in past centuries, it does not fol- 
low that it continues to be the best subject matter available 
at the present time. 

Social needs vary between different communities ; subject 
matter should vary accordingly. — The first basis of varia- 
tion in social needs and subject matter which we considered 
was the historical one. We shall now take up the second 
basis of variation, namely, variation between different com- 
munities. This is a basis that is rapidly securing the rec- 
ognition which it deserves. This recognition is in striking 
contrast with the tendency to establish standardized, uniform 
courses of study in all communities, irrespective of their 
local needs, which prevailed as long as college-entrance re- 
quirements were the dominant influence in determining high- 
school curricula. 

Small high schools should meet local needs. — One of the 
most vigorous discussions of the new tendency is an article 
entitled '' The Opportunity of the Small High School," by 
David Snedden, Commissioner of Education for Massachu- 
setts, from which the following quotation is taken : 

The conviction is slowly spreading that the traditional program 
of the small high school is, for those who do not reach college, 
a relatively futile affair when viewed from the standpoint of any 
one of the three possible aims of secondary education, namely, 
vocational efBciency, civic capacity, and personal culture. There 
is a growing demand, often inarticulate in communities supporting 
such schools, but finding more definite expression in circles where 
these problems can be systematically studied, that the artificial 
restrictions imposed on general secondary education be relaxed, 
and that such education be measurably readjusted so as to serve 
more acceptably the actual needs of the community. . . . Those 
responsible for the administration of the small high school must 



SELECTION OF SUBJECT MATTER 



6l 



needs give special attention to a determination of what is meant 
by community needs, on the one hand, and the educational possi- 
bilities of different groups of children of secondary-school age, on 
the other. (4 : loo) 

In continuing his discussion, Mr. Snedden takes up a 
consideration of the consequences, for the various subjects 
in the curriculum, of adapting them to the needs of commu- 
nities where the small high schools are located. This sug- 
gestive discussion might be read by students to advantage. 




L ;i-.eby of Mr. H. A. Brown 
READJUSTED ACADEMY AT COLEBROOK, N.H. 

Reconstructed Colebrook academy is meeting rural needs iji 
Nezv Hampshire. — One of the most significant experiments 
along this line is taking place in Colebrook, in the northern 
part of New Hampshire, and is described in a bulletin en- 
titled '' The Readjustment of a Rural High School to the 
Needs of the Community " (19 12). The broader social bear- 
ings of this experiment are so significant that a statement 
of them will be quoted at length from the bulletin as follows : 

A secondary school, whether located in a city, village, or rural 
hamlet, should be a source of strength to the community. The 
city or village in which a secondary school is located, and the entire 



62 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

section of the country directly tributary to the school, should con- 
tinually grow stronger as a direct result from the school. The 
school should constantly put back into the community the best of 
each generation as permanent residents if it is to justify its own 
existence and the taxation necessary for its maintenance. 

That rural secondary schools have been in many instances a 
source of weakness to the communities which have supported 
them, and a direct means of taking out of the community the 
very manhood and womanhood so necessary to the future pros- 
perity of state and nation, is one of the saddest aspects of modern 
education. State Superintendent Morrison has forcibly brought 
this fact home to the people of New Hampshire [in the follow- 
ing words] : 

During the first three quarters of the nineteenth century every group 
of three or four towns had its academy, usually an endowed institution. 
Out of these academies went a steady stream of sons and daughters, 
who were, other things being equal, always the strongest of the genera- 
tion, for otherwise they would not have gained this education. Seldom 
did they settle upon the old farm or in the home town. Their education 
had fitted them for other things. 

They became lawyers, or physicians, or clergymen, or schoolmasters, 
or business men in the cities, and the girls went with them. , . . Their 
children grew up under city conditions and went to city schools. The 
unambitious, the dull, the unfortunate boys of the old countryside, who 
could not get to the academy, as a class, remained behind and became 
the dominant stock. And they reproduced their kind for another gener- 
ation, upon whom the same sorting process was carried out. Then the 
factory system seized upon the strong-limbed and restless, albeit slow- 
witted, and began to sort them out and remove them. Finally, the Civil 
War came and struck down the idealists by the wholesale, mostly boys or 
young men who had not yet reproduced themselves in a new generation. 
Now, upon a journey through rural New England, you will see fine 
old mansions, showing by their architecture that they date back well 
toward the beginning of the nineteenth century, and ample old home- 
steads with their capacious barns, all of them more or less in a state of 
decay. . . . These were the homes of a race which lived and prospered, 
which cleared the land and built homes and added barn to barn, which 
accumulated wealth and gave virile expression of itself in Church, in 
State, and in educational institutions. . . . But that race allowed its sons 
and daughters to be educated away from the farm and the country and 



SELECTION OF SUBJECT MATTER 



63 



from the state. In their place to-day we too often have a dwindling town, 
a neglected farm, a closed church, an abandoned schoolhouse. 

The solution of this problem of the welfare of the rural sections 
of New England is a matter of great importance not only to the 
educator but to all classes of people. It is believed that the solu- 
tion will come by means of a change in the type of secondary 
education. High schools and academies, with good courses in 
agricultural education for the boys and domestic arts for the girls, 




Luuui_T, 1 .1. I!. 1. Brown 
COLEBROOK ACADEMY BOYS LEARNING TO USE SEPARATOR 

should create an interest in the farm and the home and their prob- 
lems, and, by giving an education which prepares for the problem 
of life under home environment, will tend to check the present 
cityward trend of population. In this seems to lie the solution of 
one of the most vital and, in its consequences, one of the most far- 
reaching problems facing our people at the present time. (1: 25-26) 

High-school mathe'inatics adapted to rural needs. — The 
general principles of adaptation to community needs which 
are expressed in this quotation affect the teaching of every 



64 



TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 



subject in the curriculum. As an example of this, note the 
effect upon the teaching of mathematics in Colebrook as 
stated in the following quotation : 

The students of the agricultural course take neither algebra nor 
geometry. In the first year they have a course in advanced arith- 
metic, which aims to be distinctly practical. It includes a review of 
elementary arithmetic and the advanced application of the subject. 




Courtesy of Mr. H. A. Brown 

COLEBROOK BOYS MAKING BABCOCK MILK TEST 

Such processes are taught as have a direct relation to the after 
lives of the pupils. Problems are selected which deal with actual 
situations and which grow out of the pupil's experiences. In the 
place of the geometry of the second year the agricultural students 
take a course called practical mathematics, which includes three 
lines of work : (a) the algebra of the equation ; (h) the application 
of geometry to practical measurements ; (c) the elementary prin- 
ciples of surveying. (1 : 22) 

Students to outline other examples of adaptation. — Other 
variations in the material of special subjects, to adapt them to 



SELECTION OF SUBJECT MATTER 



65 



varying social needs, can be outlined by students. For ex- 
ample, contrast the courses in domestic science in a select 
private secondary school for wealthy girls with the courses 
in the same subject for girls in settlement classes. Contrast 
the courses in chemistry in an agricultural high school with 
those in a high school in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, Contrast 
the work in manual training in rural and city high schools. 




Courtesy of Mr. H. A. Brown 
COLEBROOK CLASS SECURING SAMPLES OF SOIL AT DIFFERENT DEPTHS 

Social needs vary between different groups within the 
same community or institution ; subject matter should vary 
accordingly. — The heading of this paragraph sets forth the 
third phase of variation in the selection of subject matter. 
Between high schools in the same city, or even among sev- 
eral groups of students within a large cosmopolitan high 
school, there may be such variations in the needs of the 
different groups that the same subjects — English, mathe- 
matics, science, etc. — should be taught in different ways to 
meet the specialized needs. 



66 



TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 



Varied courses in composition in a cosmopolitan high school. 
— In the teaching of EngUsh composition we find striking 
examples. Thus, in a large cosmopolitan high school (that is, 
a school in which a variety of curricula are organized, includ- 
ing general and vocational courses) the students will be taught 
composition in different sections, or classes. The topics and 
training with each class will be related definitely to its voca- 
tional specialization or general interests. Thus, a commercial 




Courtesy of Mr. H. A. Brown 
A LESSON IN THE GREENHOUSE AT COLEBROOK ACADEMY 

group would write business letters and advertisements, an in- 
dustrial or preengineering group might discuss machinery or 
bridges or similar topics, and a literary or college-preparatory 
group might choose topics from literature. 

Courses in history adapted to vocational students. — His- 
tory is another subject in which the courses are being dif- 
ferentiated for different groups within the same school. 
Hence special attention is being paid to the organization 
of courses in industrial history for students in vocational 



SELECTION OF SUBJECT MATTER 6/ 

cuiricula. Similarly, there is variation in nearly every sub- 
ject in relation to varying vocational aims. 

Science courses to meet special needs of girls. — One of 
the most striking variations is in the organization of special 
science courses for girls. In the biological sciences these 
courses are essentially related to physiology and hygiene for 
women. In chemistry the topics are chosen and organized 
with special reference to the work in domestic science. In 
general, the material and methods in all subjects taught in 
high schools are being scrutinized from the standpoint of in- 
stituting variations where necessary, in order to provide for 
the special needs of girls and women more definitely than 
has been done in the past. 

Teacher must consider adaptation of subject to varying 
needs. — This will conclude our discussion of the selection of 
subject matter in relation to varying social needs. Sufficient 
has been said to demonstrate that the teaching of a given high- 
school subject is or should be no longer the simple matter 
that it sometimes has been, when all students were conducted 
through a given subject in exactly similar ways. Instead, a suc- 
cessful teacher is expected to study social progress and the de- 
velopments in his special subject and to keep abreast with these 
and adapt his material to the special needs of the community 
and of the varying groups within the community that he serves. 

II. The Determination of Relative Values 

Relative value distinguished from absolute value. — If a 

high-school teacher is committed to the practice of selecting 
subject matter in relation to varying social needs, he may 
find, if he is well acquainted with his subject and has a broad 
outlook, that the needs are so numerous, or the subject matter 
so rich, or the time so limited, that he will have to select 
carefully from available valuable material in order to use that 
which is most valuable for the group he is teaching. 



68 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

Spencer s classic statement of the difference. — This ques- 
tion of relative values as distinguished from absolute values 
has been ably discussed by Herbert Spencer, from whom we 
quoted in the first part of the chapter. Spencer's discussion 
deals particularly with the curriculum as a whole, and is to be 
found in the early part of his essay entitled ' ' What Knowl- 
edge is Most Worth." It reads as follows : 

The question which we contend is of such transcendent moment 
is not whether such or such knowledge is of worth, but what is its 
relative worth ? When they have named certain advantages which 
a given course of study has secured them, persons are apt to assume 
that they have justified themselves, quite forgetting that the ade- 
quateness of the advantage is the point to be judged. There is, 
perhaps, not a subject to which men devote attention that has not 
some value. A year diligently spent in getting up heraldry would 
very possibly give a little insight into ancient manners and morals 
and into the origin of names. Anyone who should learn the dis- 
tances between all the towns in England might, in the course of 
his life, find one or two of the thousand facts he had acquired of 
some slight service when arranging a journey. Gathering together 
all the small gossip of a county, profitless occupation as it would 
be, might yet occasionally help to establish some useful fact — say, 
a good example of hereditary transmission. But in these cases 
everyone would admit that there was no proportion between the 
required labor and the probable benefit. No one would tolerate 
the proposal to devote some years of a boy's time to getting such 
information, at the cost of much more valuable information which 
he might else have got. And if here the test of relative value is 
appealed to and held conclusive, then should it be appealed to and 
held conclusive throughout. Had we time to master all subjects, we 
need not be particular. To quote the old song : 

Could a man be secure 

That his days would endure 

As of old, for a thousand long years, 

What things might he know ! 

What deeds might he do ! 

And all without hurry or care. 



SELECTION OF SUBJECT MATTER 69 

But we that have but span-long lives must ever bear in mind 
our limited time for acquisition. And remembering how narrowly 
this time is limited, not only by the shortness of life but also still 
more by the business of life, we ought to be especially solicitous 
to employ what time we have to the greatest advantage. 

Teacher should distribute time according to relative values. 

— The principle which Spencer proposes for determining the 
selection of the subjects of the curriculum applies with equal 
force to the topics within a subject. To carry out the prin- 
ciple, the teacher of a given subject must make a careful 
inventory of the possible topics, must establish clearly the 
specific value and purpose of each topic, and then by com- 
parison arrange or grade the topics in order of greatest to 
least value. Having done this, he should plan to distribute 
the time and energy in such a way that when the course is 
completed, the emphasis will have been distributed according 
to the relative values of the topics. 

Relative values neglected in overemphasis on early parts 
of a subject. — One of the most striking examples of the neg- 
lect of this principle is found in the tendency to spend too 
much time on the first parts of a course, to the neglect of the 
later parts. This is especially pernicious where the earlier 
parts are abstract and theoretical and the later parts concrete, 
practical, or applied. Courses in psychology for teachers fur- 
nish one of the best examples. It is not uncommon to begin 
such courses with long, elaborate introductory discussions of 
the organization of the nervous system and of the special 
sense organs and sensory processes. This often consumes so 
much time that there is little opportunity left to discuss the 
more concrete and significant aspects of human nature and 
human behavior in connection with instincts, habits, reason- 
ing, language, and volition, and practically no time is avail- 
able for discussing the educational bearings of these topics. 

Overemphasis of early stages in history. — The same 
tendency to overemphasize the earlier aspects of a subject 



70 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

is found in history. In the study of American history in the 
grades we find this illustrated in the waste of time on explora- 
tions and discoveries in the sixteenth century, with the con- 
sequent neglect of the nineteenth century. In the so-called 
general history in high school we find it in the overemphasis 
on ancient and medieval history, with the consequent neglect 
of the development of modern Europe and the relation of the 
latter to American history. In the history of education in 
normal schools and colleges we find the same overemphasis 
on Greek and Roman education, and the consequent neglect 
of modern theory and practice. 

Example from literatiL7'e . — Another example of neglect 
of the principle of relative values is found in the study of 
literary selections in high school. A teacher, losing sight of 
the other matters that are in the course, is often carried away 
with the minute study of some one selection, say a play of 
Shakespeare, with the result that other selections equally 
worthy of time and study, or possibly more so, are slighted. 
Hence, it is not uncommon for a teacher to arrive at the end 
of a course and have to admit to himself and the students 
that matters which should have been taken up have not been 
touched upon. 

The only way to avoid this danger is to plan the distribu- 
tion of the topics and appropriate periods for the whole term 
in advance, and then to keep constantly checking the prog- 
ress which is being made, to determine whether it corresponds 
to the plan, and, if it varies, whether the variation is justified. 

Disagreement concerning relative values. — Great differ- 
ences of opinion exist between teachers of the same subject 
concerning the relative values of different topics. Thus, in the 
study of literature one teacher may insist that the minute study 
of the details of '' Ivanhoe " or '' Macbeth " is more valuable 
than such a rapid study of these as will permit of the reading 
of several other selections also. Another teacher may be of 
exactly the opposite opinion. 



SELECTION OF SUBJECT MATTER 71 

Quantitative measurement versus qualitative studies in 
physics. — Another striking example is found in the teaching 
of physics, and concerns the relative value of exact quantita- 
tive measurement versus a more general study of physical 
phenomena. The following quotation from Professor A. A. 
Michelson of The University of Chicago, one of the leading 
American physicists, presents this antithesis. 

It is my belief that the teaching of physics might be made far 
more attractive as well as useful ... if less stress were placed upon 
what has come to be regarded by many as its chief object, namely, 
the science of measurements. ... I would therefore propose 
for discussion the feasibility of a plan for the teaching of physics 
which avoids as far as possible the use of mathematics of even the 
most elementary kind, and which gives to the science of measure- 
ment only a secondary importance. ... It is more important to 
know the Jiature of physical relations than to know their exact value. 
It is of vastly greater value to know that all bodies attract each other 
than to know the law of inverse squares ; to know that light is pro- 
duced by a vibratory motion at right angles to the direction of 
propagation than to be able to calculate its wave length to seven 
significant figures. (6:1) 

The suggestion made by Professor Michelson in this quo- 
tation is being tested in the actual practice of teaching physics 
in high schools and is represented on a large scale in what 
is known as a '' new movement " among physics teachers. 

It will not be necessary to give further illustrations of the 
application of the standard of relative values in the selection 
of topics within a given subject. It would be an instructive 
exercise if each teacher or prospective teacher would canvass 
the subject matter of his particular subject, outline the par- 
ticular topics to be covered, determine their specific values 
(that is, the reasons for teaching each), and then rate them 
according to relative values. This rating might then be com- 
pared with the relative emphasis given in textbooks or 
advocated in discussions. 



72 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

III. The Intensive Treatment of Fewer Topics 

Encyclopedic tendency to be avoided. — In many subjects 
one of the most important principles in the organization of 
the material is to avoid the encyclopedic treatment of many 
more or less isolated topics, and, instead, to center the dis- 
cussion around a comparatively few carefully selected large 
topics or principles. Each of these should be treated so con- 
cretely and fully as to make a lasting general impression upon 
the minds of the students, thus securing better understanding 
and better retention of the topic. The two subjects in which 
the encyclopedic tendency has been most prominent and most 
pernicious in the past are geography and history. 

Ritter criticized encyclopedic tendency in geography . — 
This tendency as found in the teaching of geography at the 
beginning of the nineteenth century is well described in the 
following quotation from Karl Ritter (i 779-1 8 59), the German 
founder of modern scientific geography. 

[From the three traditional divisions, namely, mathematical, 
physical, and political,] our ordinary textbooks compile their usual 
aggregate of facts, and each becomes after its own pattern a mot- 
ley in miniature. ... A systematic exposition of geography is sel- 
dom to be found in them. . . . They are at the foundation only 
arbitrary and unmethodical collections of all facts which are ascer- 
tained to exist throughout the earth. . . . The facts are arranged as 
the pieces of a counterpane, as if every one existed in itself and for 
itself, and had no connection with others. . . . The beginning is 
usually made with boundaries^ which are generally most unstable and 
uncertain, instead of being made with some rudimental fact around 
which all others arrange themselves as a center. . . . These geo- 
graphical treatises . . . indicate knowledge rather than science ; they 
form a mere aggregation and index of rich materials, a lexicon rather 
than a true textbook. And therefore ensues, despite the undenied 
interest of the subject and its high claims, the mechanical and un- 
fruitful method only too common — the crowding of the memory 
without judgment, without thought. (12 : xxiv) 



SELECTION OF SUBJECT MATTER 73 

Encyclopedic tendency still persists in some texts. — Since 
this statement by Ritter was published, the organization of the 
subject matter of geography has improved as the result of the 
labors of Ritter and his followers. Hence we have some text- 
books in which the full treatment of fundamental geographic 
relations or topics is provided. But in many of the books the 
material continues to be organized as it was in the books 
that Ritter criticized, namely, with artificial political divisions 
serving as the starting point for the discussion, and with the 
information concerning each division set forth largely as 
isolated items or facts. 

Regional geographies fttrnish an exception. — Exceptions 
to this encyclopedic tendency in geography teaching are the 
Oxford geographies, edited by A. J. Herbertson and published 
in England, and the methods advocated in the books by 
Charles McMurry in America. The Herbertson geographies 
place the emphasis on great '' natural regions " (as was done 
by Humboldt, Ritter, Guyot, and other great geographers of 
the nineteenth century) instead of placing it on political divi- 
sions. For example, in the introduction to the study of Europe 
the first chapters are entitled The Seas and Lowlands, The 
European Highlands and their Rivers, The Climate of Europe, 
Plants and Animals, The Human Geography of Europe. 
These chapters are followed by discussions of the larger natu- 
ral divisions of Europe, such as the Scandinavian peninsula. 
Central Europe, the Alps regions, etc. When an example of 
one of these types of regions has been thoroughly studied, it 
furnishes a basis for readily understanding and interpreting 
any similar region in any part of the world. That is, the rela- 
tively complete study of certain fundamental geographic rela- 
tions in a typical example leaves a general impression that may 
be applied very widely by the student in his later thinking. 
For a discussion of the natural regions of the earth considered 
as a whole, see Herbertson's ''Senior Geography" (9) and 
his paper on '' The Major Natural Regions." (8 : 301-312) 



74 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

Type studies advocated by McMurry. — In America we 
are more familiar with this type method in geography in con- 
nection with the books of Charles McMurry. The general 
pedagogical principles involved are discussed at length by the 
McMurry brothers in ''The Method of the Recitation " (1903), 
perhaps the most widely used and certainly one of the best 
books dealing with methods of teaching published in America. 
Illustrative lessons which are printed in the book show very 
clearly what is meant by the type method. For example, on 
pages 17-24 is printed a long lesson on Minneapolis, which 
is intended to give pupils an understanding of the develop- 
ment of manufacturing and commercial cities by means of a 
careful, detailed study of one typical example and a compar- 
ison of it with a few other selected examples. Similarly, on 
pages 257-269 there is a lesson on irrigation which provides 
a comparatively thorough general understanding of this im- 
portant topic by means of a careful, detailed study of one 
irrigation system (the Big Ditch near Denver) and a com- 
parison of this with a few other selected examples. These 
sample lessons should be examined and Chapter X (pp. 236- 
256), entitled The Value of Types, should be read. 

Encyclopedic tendency dominant in history textbooks. — 
History is another subject in which the encyclopedic summary 
of hundreds of relatively isolated and meaningless facts has 
been prominent. This fact is so patent that it scarcely needs 
to be elaborated. Simply call to mind some of the most 
widely used historical textbooks, and many of them will serve 
as examples of the encyclopedic tendency. Instead of treat- 
ing a few large, important issues in a thorough manner, so 
that students will get some real understanding of historical 
relationships and developments, thousands of items of infor- 
mation are provided on the same dead level of insignificance. 

Robinson's texts fnrnish an exception. — There are some 
pleasing exceptions to this unfortunate rule. Several of the 
recent textbook treatments of the Middle Ages and the 



SELECTION OF SUBJECT MATTER 75 

Renaissance are good examples. For instance, in Professor 
J. H. Robinson's '' History of Western Europe " the chap- 
ters on The Crusades, Heresy and the Friars, and The Itahan 
Cities and the Renaissance are treatments of big historical 
topics, or units, in such a concrete manner as to give the 
student some definite and lasting impression of what the 
historical situation in each case was like. In his preface 
Robinson says : 

It has seemed best, in an elementary treatise upon so vast a theme, 
to omit the names of many personages and conflicts of secondary 
importance which have ordinarily found their way into our histori- 
cal text-books. I have ventured also to neglect a considerable 
number of episodes and anecdotes which, while hallowed by 
assiduous repetition, appear to owe their place in our manuals 
rather to accident or mere tradition than to any profound meaning 
for the student of the subject. 

The space saved by these omissions has been used for three 
main purposes. Institutions under which Europe has lived for 
centuries, above all the Church, have been discussed with a good 
deal more fullness than is usual in similar manuals. The life and 
work of a few men of indubitably first-rate importance in the 
various fields of human endeavor — Gregory the Great, Charle- 
magne, Abelard, St. Francis, Petrarch, Luther, Erasmus, Voltaire, 
Napoleon, Bismarck — have been treated with care proportionate 
to their significance for the world. Lastly, the scope of the work 
has been broadened so that not only the political but also the 
economic, intellectual, and artistic achievements of the past form 
an integral part of the narrative." (13 : iii) 

It is to be hoped that more textbooks in both history and 
geography will be constructed with the purpose of providing 
an itnderstanding of the topics treated, instead of being con- 
structed as if they were to serve as miniature encyclopedias 
for reference purposes. 

Type studies common in biology. — A subject in which the 
use of type studies has received quite general recognition is 



"je TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

biology. This point is brought out in the following quota- 
tion from Lloyd and Bigelow's '' Teaching of Biology." 

There seems to be no question that an elementary course in 
zoology in a secondary school should be based upon and consist 
largely of the study of a series of types, or examples, representing 
the most important groups of animals. No other plan is adaptable 
to the modern laboratory method of teaching the principles of the 
science, and concentration of attention upon a limited number of 
forms undoubtedly results in the most satisfactory training in the 
method of scientific study. Even from the standpoint of the acqui- 
sition of information the type method has great advantages over 
the alternative plan of dealing in generalized comparative terms 
with characteristics of a group of animals with most of which the 
students must be entirely unfamiliar. (10 : 357) 

The same general principle applies in the teaching of 
botany, but in order to become familiar with the different 
interpretations of the type method in this subject the student 
should read also pages 106-1 15 of the book from which the 
above quotation is taken. 

Examples of intensive study in other stibjects. — It is 
in the content subject that the more intensive thorough 
treatment of fewer topics is especially important. The dis- 
cussion up to this point has contained illustrations from 
geography, history, and biology. It is a simple matter to 
provide further examples from chemistry, physics, domestic 
science, and possibly from other subjects. Similarly, in the 
constructive subjects, such as art and manual training, we 
find a tendency to get away from the courses of study made 
up of isolated detailed exercises and to substitute work on 
larger projects. 

Many supporting details necessary in intensive study. — 
The part played by details in the intensive treatment of 
a few topics, as contrasted with the part which they play 
in the superficial encyclopedic treatment of many topics, 



SELECTION OF SUBJECT MATTER JJ 

deserves special consideration. There will be just as many 
details used in the former method as in the latter, but their 
character and purpose will be quite different. 

In the encyclopedic treatment of many topics we find 
thousands of details that are more or less isolated in char- 
acter. They do not contribute to form a general impression 
or general idea, but often seem to be on the same dead level 
of insignificance. On the other hand, the details provided 
in the intensive treatment of a few large topics are carefully 
selected and arranged for the purpose of contributing to the 
better understanding of the general topics. They may be 
spoken of as sitpporting the general principle or general 
impression. They may be said to make the matter under 
consideration meaningful. Thus, the statements, '' Petrairch 
was the leading Italian humanist of the fourteenth century ; 
he wrote sonnets in the vernacular, was active in searching 
for classical manuscripts, and wrote a Latin poem entitled 
'Africa,'" are relatively meaningless for most pupils, be- 
cause they present a few ideas without sufficient filling-in of 
supporting details to give them meaning. These statements 
will be filled with meaning, however, if the pupil will read 
Robinson and Rolfe's '' Petrarch." Here he will find the 
account of Petrarch's passion for Laura, and will get the 
sonnets to her placed in their human setting ; he will learn 
of Petrarch's journeys to different places in search of manu- 
scripts, of his adventures on the road and at wayside inns, 
etc.; and he will get an insight into Petrarch's ambition to 
emulate the ancient classical writers and to be crowned with 
the laurel wreath at Rome. 

Details necessary to give meaning hit do not constitute 
meaning. — These details will have served their purpose 
when they have built up in the pupil's mind the meaning 
of the statement about Petrarch with which we began. It is; 
not necessary that they be remembered in order that this\ 
meaning may be and remain perfectly clear and adequate for 



78 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

use in the future. The understanding or appreciation of the 
meaning has been built up on the basis of the details, but it 
does not consist of these details. 

Details to be fo7^gotten ; geriei^al meaning remembered. — 
Once they have served their purpose, the details may be for- 
gotten, and probably should be forgotten for purposes of men- 
tal economy. It is commonly said that nine tenths of what 
we learn in school is forgotten. This is probably true. There- 
fore it is especially important that some method be adopted 
that will assure that the one tenth that is remembered is worth 
remembering. As long as encyclopedic, unrelated, unorgan- 
ized details are taught, the part that will be remembered 
depends largely on chance. On the other hand, if large, fun- 
damental issues are emphasized, and the details so selected 
and arranged as to bring the large issues to a clear focus, 
we may feel reasonably sure that these will be the parts 
that will be remembered. 

IV. Organization in Terms of the Learner instead 
OF IN Terms of the Subject itself 

A vital issue in high-school instruction.— The fourth 
aspect of the selection and arrangement of subject matter 
which we shall consider concerns its organization in terms 
of the learner instead of in terms of the subject itself. This 
is one of the most vital issues before high-school teachers at 
the present time. It is being actively considered, especially 
in the case of first-year science and mathematics, and deserves 
consideration in several other subjects, such as chemistry, 
physics, domestic science, and drawing. 

Roitssean advocated psychological arrangement. — While 
the consideration of this problem in relation to instruction in 
American high schools is relatively new, the problem itself 
has been discussed in books on teaching for a long time. 
Thus we find Rousseau (17 12-1778) writing as follows in 



SELECTION OF SUBJECT MATTER 79 

the ''Emile," which was pubhshed in 1762 and which exerted 
a more profound influence upon education than any other 
book written in modern times. 

There is a chain of general truths by which all the sciences hold 
to common principles and are developed in logical succession. This 
chain is the method of the philosophers, but in this place we are 
not at all concerned with it. There is a totally different one, by 
means of which each individual object brings forth another and 
always points out the one which follows it. This order, which 
through a continual curiosity stimulates the attention required of 
us, is the one which most men follow, and especially the one 
required of children. (20 : 45) 

He7^bart criticized basing sequence on subject itself. — 
Similarly, Herbart (i 776— 1 84 1), the great German writer upon 
education, said in his " Outlines of Educational Doctrine " : 

The teacher in charge of a given branch of study only too often 
lays out his work without taking account of pedagogical consider- 
ations. His specialty, he thinks, suffices to suggest a plan ; the 
successive steps in its organized content will of course be the 
proper sequence for instruction to follow. In teaching a language 
he insists that pupils must master declensions and conjugations in 
order that he may read an author with them later. He expects 
them to understand ordinary prose before he passes on to elucidate 
the finished style of a poet, etc. In mathematics he demands that 
pupils bring to the subject perfect facility in common arithmetic ; 
at a more advanced stage they must be able to handle logarithms 
with ease before formulae requiring their use are reached, etc. In 
history the first thing for him to do is to erect a solid chronological 
framework to hold the historical facts to be inserted afterward. 
For ancient history he presupposes a knowledge of ancient geog- 
raphy, etc. This same view which derives the principle determining 
the sequence of studies from the instruction-material itself, as though 
it had been unconditionally and finally settled that such and such 
things must be taught, asserts itself on a larger scale in require- 
ments for admission to higher grades or schools. . . . The good 
pupil, accordingly, is one who fits into and willingly submits to 



8o TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

these arrangements. The natural consequence of all this is that 
little heed is paid to the condition of attention, namely, the gradual 
progress of interest. (17: 93~94) 

These quotations present the issue clearly : Should the 
arrangement of the topics in any subject be determined by 
the relations of the topics to each other independent of the 
learner's ability to grasp them and of his interest in them, 
or should these considerations relative to the learner be the 
dominant factors in determining the arrangement of topics ? 

Elimination of high-school pupils partially due to organi- 
zation of courses. — This problem is becoming especially im- 
portant in connection with the work of students in the first 
year of high school. The recently ascertained facts about the 
elimination of students from school are partially responsible 
for the interest in the problem. Statistics show that a large 
proportion of grammar-school pupils are willing to go to high 
school, but something which they experience in the first year 
tends to discourage them, and they drop out. 

Courses not adapted to needs, interests, or capacities. — 
One of the principal factors in this discouragement is that the 
material in the various subjects is not selected or arranged in 
such a way as to be adapted to the students' interests. Con- 
sider a typical first-year high-school curriculum of the tradi- 
tional type from the standpoint of a vigorous, ambitious student 
interested in American life of the twentieth century : a 
foreign language (ancient or modern) which bears no relation 
to his out-of-school life, probably taught by a dry and uninter- 
esting grammar-translation method ; algebra, a formal juggling 
of symbols, a mathematical mental gymnastics, equally remote 
from his out-of-school life ; possibly botany or physiography 
taught as pure sciences without reference to their practical 
applications ; rhetoric and English composition ; perhaps 
some gymnastics and music, taught in such a way that many 
of the pupils consider them '' mild forms of punishment." The 
wonder is that as many pupils stay as do. Many who would 



SELECTION OF SUBJECT MATTER 8 1 

be discouraged as far as any intellectual or practical profit is 
concerned stay because they are attracted by the social life 
or the prestige that attaches to high-school graduation. 

Reconstruction of first-year mathematics. — The problem 
of adapting the instruction to the needs and interests of the 
students has been discussed and experimented with most 
vigorously in the case of mathematics. The leader in the 
endeavor to psychologize this subject in England is John 
Perry ; hence the effort is known in that country as the Perry 
Movement. In America the most energetic experimentation 
has centered in The University of Chicago under the leader- 
ship of E. H. Moore, head of the department of mathematics. 
One of the best accounts of the movement is to be found in 
J. W. A. Young's '' Teaching of Mathematics," Chapter VI 
(pp. 87-121), entitled The Perry Movement: the Labora- 
tory Method. A conservative evaluation and a careful adap- 
tation of some of the good points in the movement are to 
be found in A. Schulze's '' Teaching of Secondary Mathe- 
matics." This book is an excellent practical guide for teachers 
of mathematics who wish to teach the subject in a manner 
that is somewhat adapted to the needs, capacities, and interests 
of high-school pupils. 

Applied problems appeal to practical interests. — One of 
the principal points of departure in reorganizing mathematics 
so as to make it appeal to the interests of the students is to 
relieve it of its abstractness and remoteness from real life to 
a certain extent by bringing in practical applications or real 
problems. As we noticed in the first section of this chapter 
(pp. 57-60), the possible applications of elementary math- 
ematics (algebra and geometry) in ordinary life are relatively 
limited ; hence the possibilities along this line should not be 
overestimated or exaggerated. But a slight amount of appli- 
cation may develop an interest which is proportionately much 
greater. This is true in many subjects, notably in psychology 
as applied to education. If the prospective teacher who is 



82 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

studying psychology gets now and then a grain of appHed 
(or appHcable) knowledge, the whole subject may become 
suffused with interest. In discussing the endeavor to make 
mathematics interesting through the use of applied problems 
Schultze says : 

Elementary mathematics has not many genuine applications, but 
still it has some. The study of these applications will undoubtedly 
increase the interest in the subject ; frequently it will also lead to 
a better understanding of the subject ; and occasionally it may be 
of practical value to some student. . . . We must not, in order to 
obtain practical value, deprive the subject of its peculiar character 
of being a subject of reasoning. But, other thmgs being equal ^ that 
topic deserves preference that can be applied or that will ultimately 
lead to applications. . . . Thus, we may well dispense with some 
of the complex cases of factoring and study instead graphical 
methods, which have a greater practical value than any other 
chapter of elementary mathematics. . . . Instead of substituting 
numbers in expressions formed at random let us study numerical 
substitution in formulae of practical value. (21 : 279-281) 

Teaching the use of logarithms and the slide rule in con- 
nection with algebra is another example of the possibility of 
bringing out some of the practical aspects of mathematics. 
In this connection Schultze says : 

Although the increasing use of calculating machines has some- 
what diminished the practical importance of logarithms, the subject 
is still the most useful one in elementary algebra. Hence it is 
necessary to make the student so familiar with the practical use 
of logarithms that he can do the work accurately and quickly. 

(21 : 35°) 

The slide rule is a very simple instrument which calculates 

mechanically products, quotients, powers, roots, etc. Its principle 

is based upon the properties of logarithms, which are most lucidly 

illustrated by means of this instrument. No teacher who is able to 

secure some slide rules should neglect to explain to his students 

the principle and use of this wonderful little machine. (21 : 352) 



SELECTION OF SUBJECT MATTER 83 

While these last examples do not bear upon the first year's 
work in mathematics, they illustrate the possibility of increas- 
ing the interest in some of the later parts of the subject of 
mathematics by means of practical applications. 

Unification, or mixing, of various parts of mathematics. — 
A second phase of the reconstruction of the teaching of 
mathematics so as to adapt it to the needs and interests of 
students is expressed in the following quotation from an 
article by Professor D. E. Smith on " The Teaching of 
Mathematics in the Secondary Schools of the United States." 

There is another influence that is bound strongly to mold the 
future, and that is the intense study of practical psychology. 
Teachers are asking why the human mind should be asked to 
comprehend certain exceedingly abstract principles of geometry 
before the much easier parts of trigonometry are mastered ; why 
the intricacies of advanced algebra are required before the simpler 
parts of the calculus are presented ; and why, in general, there 
should be the conventional and accidental barriers maintained be- 
tween algebra and geometry, and geometry and trigonometry, 
and the calculus. (22: 210) 

New types of textbooks in first-year and second-year mathe- 
matics. — Among the best examples of the endeavor to carry 
out the suggestions contained in the foregoing quotations, 
as far as the first and second years of high school are con- 
cerned, are the revised courses in ''first-year mathematics" 
and ''second-year mathematics" which have been worked out 
in the high school of The University of Chicago. 

In the description of this work in the announcement of 
the University High School the following statements occur : 

FIRST YEAR 

The text of the first year is " First- Year Mathematics." This 
book, prepared by the members of the mathematical department, 
has been used for seven years in the classroom. It interweaves 
the more concrete and easier portions of algebra and geometry. 



84 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

In the first chapter the algebra work is developed about the equa- 
tion, the axioms of the four fundamental processes are stated and 
illustrated by concrete examples, and all transformations of equa- 
tions are made on the basis of these laws. Algebraic problems are 
developed from the laws of percentage and from the sides, angles, 
and areas of polygons. The laws of the lever and of beams are 
established by experiments in the classroom and are made the 
basis for the developments of the fundamental processes and the 
laws of signs. Drawing to scale gives many problems in similarity 
of triangles and in ratio and proportion. Parallel lines, perpen- 
diculars, bisectors, and other geometrical concepts and construc- 
tions are used to set forth the notions and laws of algebra. The 
pupil is early taught to graph on cross-section paper statistics, 
equations, and general expressions of number. Throughout the 
course the graph is made an instrument for picturing conditions 
and laws and for verifying results. To secure mastery of the 
equation as an instrument for the solution of problems, consider- 
able practice is given in stating verbal problems in the form of the 
equation and in translating formal equations into verbal language. 
To emphasize the applied features of algebra and geometry, as 
well as to prepare for work in physics, many problems are taken 
from the latter science, and many formulas of physics are trans- 
lated into verbal language and are also solved for different sym- 
bols. In the study of factoring, application is made at once to 
operations with fractions and the solution of quadratic and higher 
equations. The operations with radicals are applied to the obtain- 
ing of approximate values of incommensurable parts of regular 
polygons and circles and to the verification of irrational roots of 
equations. Simultaneous equations with three or more unknown 
quantities and a considerable body of geometrical theorems on 
congruency of triangles and parallelograms complete the text. 

SECOND YEAR 

In the second year, " Second-Year Mathematics," also prepared 
by the department, is used. This is a continuation of the inter- 
weaving of geometry and algebra, but with the stress on geometry. 
The first two years give all the algebra usually taken in first-year 
courses, and the geometry of the second-year courses, including 



SELECTION OF SUBJECT MATTER 85 

constructions with compasses and rule, proofs of the standard 
theorems on equalities, inequalities, and similarity, areas, regular 
polygons, and circles, besides much practice in algebraic processes 
based on such theorems ; and in connection with similar triangles 
the notions of the trigonometric functions and their use in the 
solution of the right triangle. 

Revisions of older books defer difficulties and introduce 
applied problems. — In addition to the tendency to write new 
textbooks in mathematics from the standpoint of the needs, 
interests, and capacities of high-school pupils we find some 
of the older textbooks being revised from this point of view. 
For example, in the preface to the 1 9 1 1 edition of a well- 
known first-year algebra we find the statement that certain 
difficulties are deferred until the pupil is able to cope with 
them ; easy aspects of some of the topics usually treated late 
in the course are introduced early in the work ; the problems 
are based largely on interesting facts derived from a variety 
of sources, including physics, geometry, and commercial life. 
In addition to these statements, however, there are others 
which indicate that many of the characteristics of the older 
books are retained. 

Thus we see that high-school mathematics, which has long 
stood as the best example of a logically organized subject, is 
being psychologized, reconstructed, and reorganized in terms 
of the needs, capacities, and interests of the students. 

Reconstruction of science courses. First-year general 
science based 07i pedagogical considerations. — The course 
in science in the first year of high school furnishes the next 
most striking example of this psychologizing, or reconstruc- 
tive, tendency. In general the reform movement in science 
has the same characteristics as the movement in mathematics. 
Instead of separate, abstract courses in botany, physiology, 
and physiography in the first year, with chemistry and physics 
in later years, there is a tendency to organize in the first 
year a general-science course which shall take its point of 



86 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

departure from practical issues in social life, in which the 
natural sciences are important, and then draw upon all the 
sciences, both biological and physical, for the material of 
instruction relative to these issues. 

Specialist in single science not competent to organize 
courses. — In discussing the necessity of a general reconstruc- 
tion in the teaching of science, Professor C. H. Judd says : 

Science teachers are [ordinarily] not willing to examine and dis- 
cuss the needs of their students as a primary consideration in the 
organization of their courses. Science has a kind of inflexible 
logic of its own in the mind of a mature teacher — has a kind of 
coherency in organization that is so attractive that to break down 
this ideal arrangement in any wise ... is very repugnant for the 
true scientist. I sympathize with this respect for the logic of 
science. I should be very glad indeed if we could begin and go 
on without any repetition in a coherent march through [a given 
science] in such a way as to bring the student into exact knowl- 
edge and into precise forms of reasoning — I say I should be glad 
if that could be done without leaving the path of logical order. 
But the fact of the case is that it cannot be done. . . . 

I think there are some teachers who are overtrained in science ; 
that is, I should say they are overtrained in a single science. . . . 
That these specialists should be guided is as important as that they 
know their subjects. . . . When you get a specialist who is so ab- 
sorbed in one subject, you have, from the point of view of the ad- 
ministrator of a high school, a very serious problem. It is the 
problem of organizing a course of study for students with a man 
who has forgotten the students. (18 : 91) 

Examples of general-science courses. — Two examples of 
attempts to organize first-year general-science courses are 
outlined below. They depart radically from the ordinary 
courses in the separate sciences, but it is evident that the 
first course outlined is based largely on the physical sciences, 
whereas the second course outlined is based largely on physi- 
ography, physics, and the biological sciences. 



SELECTION OF SUBJECT MATTER 8/ 

The first outline shows the chapter headings of one of the 
few books of this kind that have appeared up to the present 
time (19 14). (15) 

I. Heat. 
II. Temperature and Heat. 

III. Other Facts about Heat. 

IV. Burning, or Oxidation. 
V. Food. 

VI. Water. 

VII. Air. 

VIII. General Properties of Gases. 

IX. Invisible Objects. 

X. Light. 

XL Refraction. 

XII. Photography. 

XIII. Color. 

XIV. Heat and Light as Companions. 
XV. Artificial Lighting. 

XVI. Man's Way of helping Himself. 
XVII. The Power behind the Engine. 
XVIII. Pumps and their Value to Man. 
XIX. The Water Problem of a Large City. 

XX. Man's Conquest of Substances. 
XXI. Fermentation. 
XXII. Bleaching. 

XXIII. Dyeing. 

XXIV. Chemicals as Disinfectants and Preservatives. 
XXV. Drugs and Patent Medicines. 

XXVI. Nitrogen and its Relation to Plants. 

XXVII. Sound. 

XXVI 1 1. Musical Instruments. 

XXIX. Speaking and Hearing. 

XXX. Electricity. 

XXXI. Some Uses of Electricity, 

XXXII. Modern Electrical Inventions. 

XXXIII. Magnets and Currents. 

XXXIV. How Electricity may be Measured. 
XXXV. How Electricity is made on a Large Scale. 

In the development of each of the above topics the book 
gives practical illustrations taken from everyday life. For 



88 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

example, the first chapter, on heat, contains a section on 
methods of heating buildings, with subtopics as follows : open 
fireplaces, stoves, hot-air furnaces, hot- water furnaces. 

General-science course of The University of Chicago High 
School, — The following outline gives the main topics in a 
general-science course that has been constructed in the high 
school of The University of Chicago and is now published 
in somewhat modified form as a textbook. (14) 

Part I. The Air 

I. Some Physical Characteristics of the Air. 

II. Temperature Changes and the Seasons. 

III. The Water of the Air. 

IV. The Weather. 

V. Composition of the Air — Molecular Theory. 
VI. Composition of the Air — Atomic Theory. 
VII. Relation of the Air to Chlorophyll Work. 
VIII. Dust, Molds, and Bacteria of the Air. 
IX. Flying Insects as Distributors of Bacteria. 

Part II. Water and its Uses 

X. Ice, Water, and Steam. 

XI. Evaporation and Condensation. 

XII. Melting and the Melting Point. 

XIII. Water Pressures, Buoyancy, and Density. 

XIV. Climatic Influences — Chicago and Lake Michigan. 
XV. Commercial Relations — Chicago and Lake Michigan. 

XVI. Water Supplies for City and Country. 
XVII. Water and Sewage Disposal. 

Part III. Work and Energy 

XVIII. Work by Running Water. 

XIX. Work and Machines. 
XX. Mechanical Energy. 

XXI. Heat and Work. 
XXII. The Sun as a Source of Energy. 
XXIII. Energy for Plants and Animals. 



SELECTION OF SUBJECT MATTER 89 

Pai-t IV. The EartJCs Cj'ttst 

XXIV. Effect of Natural Forces upon the Earth's Surface. 

XXV. Structure and Composition of the Soil. 

XXVI. Origin of the Soil. 

XXVII . Soil Water, Drainage, and Irrigation. 

XXVIII. Erosion and Sedimentation. 

XXIX. Life in the Soil. 

Pa?'t V. Life upon the Earth 

XXX. The Plant Covering of the Earth. 
XXXI. Absorption from the Soil and Air by Plants. 
XXXII. The World's Food Supply. 

XXXIII. Utilization of Food in the Plant. 

XXXIV. The Nutrition of Animals. 
XXXV. Classification of Plants and Animals. 

XXXVI. Reproduction in Plants and Animals. 
XXXVII. The Struggle for Existence. 
XXXVIII. Parents and Offspring. 

Advantages of a general-science course. — The advantages 
of a properly constructed and well-conducted general-science 
course in the first year of high school may be briefly sum- 
marized as follows : 

1. For the great numbers of students who do not go be- 
yond the first year it will give an insight into the various 
sciences in their manifold applications. 

2. For those students who continue in high school it will 
develop an interest and an insight that will be helpful in their 
election of other science courses and will illuminate these. 

3. For all students it will provide superior training in 
scientific method and the application of this method to the 
actual problems of life, for instead of providing merely for 
the relatively abstract study of a single science, it will require 
on the part of the pupils independent reflective thinking in 
connection with the type of problems that they will meet 
out of school. 



90 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

Logical quality of reconstructed courses. — We noted in 
Chapter II that the terms culture and liberal education carry 
a certain dignity and respect which tends to be attached to 
any system of education to which they may be applied. Hence, 
in order to secure such dignity and respect for the newer types 
of education, we found it necessary so to define these badges 
of respectability as to make them applicable to the newer edu- 
cation. The same process is necessary in connection with the 
term logical, since to say that a subject is "logically organized " 
tends to bias one immediately in its favor. 

Logical, progressive cohereitcy possible in a practical out- 
line. — The phrase logical organization has commonly been 
interpreted in terms of the impression made by the finished 
outline of a course prepared by the teacher in the form of 
a syllabus or a book to be used as a guide by the students 
who are to study the course. Coherency, or connectedness, 
and organization in terms of main divisions and subdivisions 
are usually the bases of judgment in determining the logical 
quality of the product from this point of view. If we accept 
for a moment this basis for estimating logical quality, it is 
important to notice that the basis of coherency, or con- 
nectedness, may be either {a) abstract in terms of a single 
subject or {b) practical in terms of the ways in which vari- 
ous subjects, or fields of knowledge, contribute to the con- 
sideration of certain practical issues. For example, a textbook 
on psychology might be considered logical from the first point 
of view if its various topics were so organized and related as 
to support each other, so that discussions outlined in the 
beginning would lead up to later discussions and serve as 
factors of explanation in these. On the other hand, a text- 
book on pedagogy, like the present volume, might be organ- 
ized logically from the second, or practical, standpoint, namely, 
from the standpoint of methods of teaching in high school. 
It might establish certain fundamental considerations first, 
which would serve as factors of explanation in the later 



SELECTION OF SUBJECT MATTER 91 

discussion, and it might reveal a certain amount of progres- 
sive coherency in the treatment of its topics. The order of 
topics might be varied in many ways, but in each case, to be 
considered logical^ the progressively coherent quality should 
be evident. 

General-scie7ice cotti'se may be logically coherejtt. — The 
same points apply in the logical organization of reconstructed 
courses in high-school mathematics or science. In the latter 
case certain practical issues could furnish the starting points, 
and material relevant to them could be drawn from various 
sciences. These practical issues and the selected scientific 
m.aterial would not necessarily be a hodgepodge, however. 
The issues themselves could be arranged in such a manner 
as to present just as attractive an example of progressive 
coherency as any of the abstract outlines of a single science. 
Hence a general course may be just as logical from this point 
of view as a course in physiography or botany or physics. 

''^Logical " may designate qualities of scientific thinkhtg. — 
There is another way of thinking of the meaning of logical, 
however, and that is in terms of the kind of thinking that the 
student does. From this point of view a student who memo- 
rizes completely the attractively organized and coherent system 
of some textbook in chemistry or of a Euclidean geometry 
may not have done any logical reflective thinking at all. 
He may have no appreciation or understanding even of the 
steps of connectedness in the system that he has learned. 
On the other hand, a student who is presented with certain 
problems concerning ventilation or food supply, for example, 
and has to search for relevant material from various sources, 
may be doing the highest grade of logical reflective thinking. 
If he keeps his problem clearly in mind, if he searches for 
evidence, if he evaluates this in an unbiased manner, if he 
rejects irrelevant material, if he arranges and organizes his 
ideas, if he formulates and verifies his conclusions, he is being 
logical in the highest sense ; he is being scientifically minded, 



92 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

he is acquiring skill in the use of the scientific method, and 
he is on the right road to become a scientist. 

ReconstnLcted courses may be logical in both senses. — 
Thus we see that whether the term logical be interpreted 
as designating the quality of progressive coherency in the 
teacher's outline of a course of study or as designating the 
quality of the thinking done by the pupil, in either case the work 
in reconstructed mathematics or in first-year general science 
may be essentially logical in character. 

The general principles of organization which have been 
discussed with special reference to first-year mathematics and 
science apply also in many other subjects and at many stages 
in school work. For example, in the study of physics we have 
many of the same possibilities that were utilized in the out- 
lines on general science. In domestic science it is probably 
desirable to begin with the study of practical issues in cooking 
and sanitation, and then to bring in from the various sciences 
the principles and experiments which have direct bearing 
upon these issues. This is necessary in order to avoid the 
waste of time in the special sciences upon topics that have no 
bearing upon the practical field for which students are being 
trained. Similarly, courses in psychology for teachers should 
grow out of practical issues in teaching. If the opposite prac- 
tice of beginning with psychology is followed, much time is 
wasted on topics that have little or no bearing upon teaching. 

Conclusion of discussion of subject matter. — This will 
conclude our discussion of the selection and arrangement of 
the material of high-school subjects. The four main points 
that have been treated in this connection are : (i) subject mat- 
ter should be adapted to varying social needs ; (2) specific and 
relative values of topics should be carefully determined ; (3) in 
the content subjects the intensive treatment of a few large 
topics should be substituted for the encyclopedic treatment 
of many small topics ; (4) the order of topics should be deter- 
mined by the needs, capacities, and interests of the students. 



SELECTION OF SUBJECT MATTER 93 

Up to this point in the book our discussion has been con- 
cerned with three large issues : first, the purposes of class- 
room activity, namely, health, information, habits, ideals, and 
interests as related to the development of efficiency, good 
will, and noble enjoyment ; second, economy in classroom 
management ; third, the selection and arrangement of sub- 
ject matter. These are fundamental preliminary issues that 
should determine the point of view of every teacher and that 
are of practical importance in connection with every subject. 

The next problem to be attacked is how students learn 
most economically in the various subjects of instruction ; for 
example, how do they acquire most economically motor skill, 
the vocabulary of a foreign language, skill in reflective thinking, 
habits of enjoyment, and skill in expression. Several chapters 
will be devoted to these problems of economy in learning. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES 

Adapting subject matter to social needs. — i. Brown, H. A. The 
Readjustment of a Rural High School to the Needs of the Community. 
Bulleti7i No. 20, United States Bureau of Education., igi2. Con- 
crete description of reconstruction of Colebrook (N.H.) Academy. 

2. Dewey, John. The School and Society. (The University of 
Chicago Press, 1899.) The most influential modern statement of the 
social point of view in the selection of subject matter. 

3. Smith, D. E. The Teaching of Geo7netry. (Ginn and Company, 
191 1.) Quoted incidentally in the chapter, 

4. Snedden, David. The Opportunity of the Small High School. 
School Review., February, 191 2, Vol. XX, pp. 98-110, Emphasizes 
serving local community needs. 

5. Spencer, Herbert. Education (1859). Chap. i. Famous in- 
dictment of English classical secondary curriculum as failing to meet 
contemporary social needs. 

Relative values. — 6. Michelson, A. A, The Purpose and Organi- 
zation of Physics Teaching. School Science and Mathematics., January, 
1909, Vol. IX, pp. 3-4. Quoted incidentally in the chapter. 

7. Spencer, Herbert. Editcation {i^z,g). Chap, i, entitled What 
Knowledge is Most Worth. Most influential argument in favor of 
considering relative values. 



94 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

Intensive treatment of fewer topics. — 8. Herbertson, A. J. The 

Major Natural Regions. Geographical Journal^ March, 1905, Vol. XXV, 

pp. 301-31 2. A description of the plan for teaching regional geography. 

9. Herbertson, A. J. The Senior Geography. (The Clarendon 

Press, 1907.) An English regional geography. 

10. Lloyd, F. E., and Bigelow, M. A. The Teaching of Biology. 
(Longmans, Green & Co., 1904.) Pp. 106-T15, 357. A discussion of 
the type method. 

1 1 . McMuRRY, F. and C. The Method of the Recitation. (The 
Macmillan Company, 1903.) Chap. x. Discussion and examples of 
type studies. 

12. Ritter, Karl. Comparative Geography. (American Book 
Company, 1865.) P. xxiv. Strong criticism of encyclopedic method 
in geography. 

13. Robinson, J. H. History of Western Europe. (Ginn and Com- 
pany, 1903.) Preface. Criticism of encyclopedic method in history. 

Adapting organization of subject matter to students. — 1 4. Cald- 
well, O. W., and Eikenberry, W. L. Elements of General Science. 
(Ginn and Company, 1914-) A sample textbook. 

15. Clark, Bertha M. Geiteral Science. (American Book Com- 
pany, 191 2.) A sample textbook. 

16. Dewey, John. How We Think. (D. C. Heath & Co., 1900.) 
Chap. V, entitled The Psychological and Logical Method. 

17. Herbart, F. Outlines of Educational Doctidne. (The Mac- 
millan Company, originally published in 1841.) Pp. 93-94. 

18. JuDD, C. H. Meaning of Science in Secondary Schools. School 
Science and Mathematics., 191 2, Vol. XH, pp. 87-98. 

19. Morrison, H. C. Reconstructed Mathematics in High Schools. 
In The Thirteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of 
Education. (The University of Chicago Press, 191 4.) Pp. 9-31. Best 
discussion of possibilities of organizing new courses in mathematics 
adapted to needs of high-school students. 

20. Rousseau, J. J. Ejnile. (D. Appleton and Company, originally 
pubHshed in 1762.) P. 45. 

21. Schultze, A. Teaching of Secondary Mathematics. (The Mac- 
millan Company, 191 2.) A valuable manual of improved methods. 

22. Smith, D. E. The Teaching of Mathematics in the Secondary 
Schools of the United States. School Science and Mathematics^ 1 909, 
Vol. IX, p. 210. Quoted incidentally in the chapter. 

23. Young, J. W. A. The Teaching of Mathematics. (Longmans, 
Green & Co., 1906.) Chap, vi, entitled The Perry Movement: the 
Laboratory Method. 



CHAPTER V 

TYPES OF LEARNING INVOLVED IN 
HIGH-SCHOOL SUBJECTS 

Main points of the chapter, i. In order to choose the best 
methods of teaching various high-school subjects it is necessary to 
know the most economical and effective methods of carrying on 
the various types of learning involved. 

2. For practical purposes the following types of learning may 
be distinguished : 

a. Acquiring motor skill. 

b. Associating symbols and meanings. 

c. Acquiring skill in reflective thinking. 

d. Acquiring habits of enjoyment. 

e. Acquiring skill in expression. 

Special methods in high-school subjects based on processes 
of learning. — In order to determine the correct methods of 
instruction to be followed in the various high-school subjects 
it is necessary to determine the most economical methods of 
learning which are involved in each subject. To do this will 
require taking up a consideration of several types of learning, 
since the processes of learning vary so much with the char- 
acter of the subjects that are being studied. Up to this point 
in our discussion we have been concerned with Q:QxX2i\Vi. general 
principles of method which are applicable in the teaching of 
nearly all subjects. These principles have been related to the 
purposes of high-school instruction, economy in classroom 
management, and the selection and arrangement of subject 
matter, and should concern all high-school teachers. Each 
of the next six chapters, on the other hand, will deal with 

95 



96 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

certain special types or aspects of learning, and the teacher of 
only one subject, such as manual training or mathematics or 
composition, may be interested in only one or two of these 
chapters. This chapter is intended to serve as an introduction 
to these somewhat specialized discussions. 

Five types, or aspects, of learning outlined.^ — For purposes 
of this discussion we may distinguish roughly five types of 
learning which are prominent in high school, as follows : 

1. Acqidring motor skill. — This form of learning is obvi- 
ously involved in gymnastics, dancing, manual training, and 
laboratory manipulation. It is less obvious, although really 
just as important, in learning the pronunciation of a foreign 
language and in learning to sing, since these involve acquir- 
ing motor skill in the use of the vocal organs. 

2 . Associating symbols and meanings. — This type of learn- 
ing is most prominent in high-school in mastering the vocab- 
ulary of a foreign language. Since this constitutes such a 
large part of high-school work, the discussion of the most 
economical methods of building up associations is very impor- 
tant. The process of association is also prorninent in such 
subjects as history, in which the learning of a series of facts 
forms a large part of the pupil's work. 

3. Reflective thinkins:^ — Mathematics, natural science, and 
the gra"!nmatical work in the study of a language involve a 
large amount of reflective thinking, reasoning, or problem- 
solving. Other subjects, however, may also provide for more 
or less of this type of mental activity. This is especially true 
of the social sciences, notably economics, civics, and sociology. 
Another phase of reflective thinking is the acquiring of ab- 
stract and general meanings, especially in the sciences and in 
mathematics and grammar. 

4. Acquiring habits of enjoyment. — Music, literature, and 
other arts, as well as sports and games, furnish the best exam- 
ples of this type of learning. In our discussion of the pur- 
poses of instruction (on page 1 7) we noticed that training for 



TYPES OF LEARNING 97 

harmless enjoyment constituted one of the ultimate aims of 
education. The special technique involved in instruction that 
is organized to attain this end will be discussed in Chapter X. 

5 . Training in expression. — This aspect, or type, of learn- 
ing presents the central issue in oral and written composition, 
dramatization, drawing, painting, modeling, etc. It will be 
discussed in Chapter XI, with special emphasis upon training 
in composition. 

By keeping in mind these five types of learning, and the 
importance of each in high-school instruction, the student 
will gain a general standpoint for studying the chapters that 
immediately follow. The first of these will be devoted to the 
first of the types of learning enumerated above, namely, 
acquiring motor skill. 



CHAPTER VI 

ACQUIRING MOTOR CONTROL 

Main points of the chapter, i . Acquiring motor control is impor- 
tant in gymnastic and shop activities, in dancing, in musical technique, 
and in the pronunciation of a foreign language. 

2. Psychological experiments upon motor control furnish few 
suggestions concerning methods of instruction, because they have 
ordinarily been conducted upon uninstructed learning. 

3. There is a great mass of empirical discussion concerning the 
best methods of instruction to be used. 

4. Practically the only point upon which there is agreement is 
the necessity of good form. There is often radical disagreement 
as to what good form is in any given case. 

5. Studies in the anatomy and operation of the vocal apparatus 
in producing sound have led to an exaggerated emphasis upon in- 
struction concerning the vocal movements in learning to sing and 
in learning to pronounce a foreign language. 

Motor control important in various activities. — As stated 
in the preceding chapter, the acquisition of motor skill is the 
principal type of learning involved in gymnastic exercises, in 
dancing, in shop activities, in some laboratory exercises, in 
mastering certain forms of musical technique, and in the pro- 
nunciation of a foreign language. Typical examples in gym- 
nastics are learning to swing Indian clubs, to fence, and to 
do the kip on the horizontal bar. In the laboratory and 
shop, learning to bend and blow glass, to dissect animals, to 
manipulate pie crust, to file iron, and to plane wood are ex- 
amples. Acquiring skill in fingering in playing the piano or 
violin and learning to say ich or bose in German are examples 
from musical technique and the pronunciation of a foreign 
language respectively. 

98 



ACQUIRING MOTOR CONTROL 99 

Questions of method involved. — In determining the best 
methods to be used in learning most economically and effec- 
tively to make the correct movements in these various activities 
the following special questions arise : 

1. Are there certain best methods of performing a given 
act, to which the learner's attention should be directed ? 

2. (a) How useful are verbal directions or instructions 
concerning how to make the movements ? (b) How useful 
is imitation ? 

3. Should the learner's attention be centered on the 
movement or on its objective result ? 

4. To what extent is it necessary to depend upon the 
method of trial and accidental success ? 

5 . To what extent is it profitable to give separate attention 
to the learning of the elementary movements which constitute 
a complex act ? 

Experimental investigations have given little assistance. — 
These questions could easily be experimentally investigated 
in psychological laboratories, because the conditions of learn- 
ing in the case of motor skill are relatively easy to determine 
and control. A scientific experimental investigation in any 
case aims to simplify, control, and modify in certain definite 
ways the conditions which determine a given event or series 
of events, and to measure exactly the effects of the modifica- 
tions. In some types of learning (for example, in the case of 
acquiring skill in reflective thinking or in expression, or in 
acquiring habits of enjoyment) the processes of learning and 
the determining conditions are so complex that it is a diffi- 
cult problem to control and measure them experimentally ; 
but in the case of certain relatively simple acts of motor skill 
the experimental investigations are easily conducted, and a 
number have been made. Unfortunately, however, most of 
these have concerned undirected or uninstructed learning ; 
that is, the learner has been left largely to himself to acquire 
skill in the act under investigation. Consequently, little 



lOO TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

light has been thrown upon the relative efficiency of various 
forms of instruction in modifying the learner's progress. 

Learning to juggle balls a typical example of experimenta- 
tion. — A good example of the investigation of learning to 
perform a complex act is E. J. Swift's work on the tossing 
and catching of balls. Five persons, technically known as 
''subjects," practiced for a good many days, and the results 
of the practice were definitely measured. Each subject jug- 
gled two balls ; that is, he tried to keep both going with one 
hand, catching and throwing one while the other was in the air. 
There were three principal aspects or elements in the acqui- 
sition of skill in the performance : namely, (a) acquisition of 
general control in throwing ; {b) sureness in catching ; [c) use 
of some special method of throwing so as to avoid collisions. 

If we consider Swift's experiment in terms of the general 
questions raised above on page 99, we may note the follow- 
ing points : 

1 . Better methods of throwing a7id catching important. — 
There are certainly better if not best methods of throwing 
and catching. For example, to avoid collisions, it is better 
to give the balls a circular motion, so that they go up on one 
line and come down on another. Moreover, of the possible 
circular motions it is better to use one from right to left in- 
stead of one in which the balls are thrown up at arm's length 
and take such a circular course as to fall close to the body. 
Hence a subject who hit upon the right-to-left or left-to-right 
circular movement early in the experiment made rapid prog- 
ress. Likewise, in catching, it is better to let the ball fall into 
the palm held horizontally in front of the body than to catch 
it '' with the hand high in the air and the palm forward and 
almost perpendicular," as was done by one of the subjects, 
with the result that he made relatively little improvement 
during the month that he used this second method. 

2. Verbal directions help in this case. — The possibility 
of profiting by verbal instructions, supplemented perhaps 



ACQUIRING MOTOR CONTROL loi 

by imitation, seems perfectly evident in a case like this. 
Hence Swift makes the following statement : 

We see in this the value of suggesting good ways of doing things 
while the learning is still in its early stages. If the learner goes on 
[without instruction], he will finally develop a plan of his own, but 
only after a good deal of wandering, and even then it may not be 
the best. (10: 182) 

3. Attentio7i sometimes on movement, sometimes on result. 
— In some cases it would seem that the learner's attention 
might with advantage be centered on the movement, and in 
other cases on the objective result. For example, in the case 
of the poor method of catching described above, the substitu- 
tion of the better method would seem to involve centering 
the attention on the movement or position of the hand. This 
does not mean that the subject would look at his hand, but 
its position would be kept clearly in mind in modifying the 
method. On the other hand, in the adoption of the right-to- 
left circular method of throwing, attention would almost cer- 
tainly be centered on the objective result, namely, the path 
followed by the ball, 

4. Trial and accidental success 7tsed in fifter adjtist- 
ments. — After full allowance is made for the possibilities 
of verbal instruction and imitation in assisting the learner to 
use the best methods, there remains a very large role to be 
played by the method of trial and accidental success. This 
becomes evident in the case of tossing and catching balls 
when attention is called to the large part played by the 
fingers and wrist in skillful juggling. The finer adjustments 
made by these parts do not come clearly to mind at any stage 
in the learning, yet they are most important in catching and 
throwing the ball skillfully. 

5. Separate training 07i elements not vahtable hei^e. — 
There can be little question concerning the desirability or 
undesirability of giving separate training on each of the 



I02 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

elements which constitute the complex act in this case. By 
omitting catching for the time being, it would be possible to 
give separate attention to throwing, and vice versa ; but it is 
doubtful whether anyone would advocate this. To be sure, 
efficiency in the act as a whole depends to a large extent 
upon efficiency in each part of the act. Hence an individual 
might throw well but his total efficiency remain low because 
he caught poorly. But since his catching is always to follow 
upon his throwing, it would seem best to strive to improve 
his catching in connectioji with the throwing instead of sepa- 
rately. Here the sequence is so intimate, or so certain, that 
separate mastery of one of the elements would seem to be 
uneconomical. There may be cases, however, which we shall 
discuss later, in which separate attention to the elements of 
a complex movement may seem to be justified. 

Other investigations illustrating trial and error. — In 
order to bring out more clearly the part played by the 
method of trial and accidental success in adult learning we 
shall study briefly two other examples from experimental psy- 
chology. The first is an experiment conducted by J. H. Bair 
on learning to move the ears, and the second is W. F. Dear- 
born's description of the acquisition of skill in mirror writing. 

Learning to move the ears a good exantple. — Learning 
to move the ears is for most adults an almost entirely novel 
feat. It is learned by securing separate control of certain 
movements of the ears which may occur when certain 
general movements of the head muscles are made, including 
raising the brows. That is, the movement which it is desired 
to control is first made as a part of a general diffuse move- 
ment of the neighboring muscles, and gradually by a process 
of selection and elimination comes to be made by itself. The 
same process of selection from a more diffuse movement 
occurs in learning to alternate the ears, in learning to raise 
the brows without moving (or innervating) the ears, and in 
learning to raise one brow independently of the other. 



ACQUIRING MOTOR CONTROL 1 03 

Having idea of movement did not elimi^iate trial a7id error. 
— Bair experimented to determine whether passively experi- 
encing the movement would enable one to make it. He 
stimulated the appropriate ear muscles of the subject with 
electricity, thus making these contract and move the ear. 
He found that, while this enabled the subject to identify the 
ear movement when he succeeded in making it by trial and 
accidental success, it did not enable him to produce the move- 
ment without going through the process of trial and acci- 
dental success. Subjects who had experienced the electrically 
stimulated movement, however, took less time in learning to 
move the ears voluntarily than did a group of subjects who 
had not had the muscle stimulated electrically. 

Concerning the direction of attention during the process 
of selection and elimination (for example, in learning to 
move one ear without moving the other) Bair says that a 
positive effort to inhibit the movement of one ear is not 
effective, but if the subject concentrates attention on the one 
to be moved 2.xvdL forgets the other, he gradually gains the 
separate control. Hence he concludes : 

The more closely the attention can be directed to a movement 
to be made, and the more nearly the part of the movement desired 
not to be made can for the time being be forgotten, the more 
likely is the desired movement to be accomplished. (4 : 487) 

This point is brought out more clearly in the following 
quotation from Freeman : 

The elimination of useless movements, or the selection of appro- 
priate ones, is one of the fundamental processes in motor learning. 
A practical question which may be raised concerning it is whether 
the result can best be reached by emphasizing the movements 
which are to be selected or those which are to be eliminated. In 
general it is much better to fix attention on the movements which 
are to be made, and allow the superfluous movements to drop out 
of themselves. It is a familiar fact that the bicycle rider avoids 



I04 



TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 



the ditch best by keeping his attention on the path. The nervous 
energy is automatically withdrawn from the channels leading to 
the muscles not concerned, when the nervous channels to the 
appropriate muscles become more open. Directions should be 
positive, then, rather than negative. The pupil should be shown 
what to do rather than what not to do. The only exception to 



Scale 




APPARATUS USED BY DEARBORN FOR EXPERIMENTING UPON 
MIRROR WRITING 

this rule appears when the pupil has fallen into bad habits which 
need to be broken up. Then it may be necessary to call attention 
to the thing to be avoided. (16 : 25) 

Trial and error, not reasoning, predominant in mirror 
waiting. — Dearborn's experiments on the acquisition by 
adults of skill in mirror writing illustrate clearly the part 
played by trial and accidental success but do not throw much 
light on the relative efficiency of methods of instruction. 



ACQUIRING MOTOR CONTROL 



105 



The apparatus used by Dearborn is shown in the illustra- 
tion on page 104. In discussing the experiment he says : 

There is some advantage ... in an experiment which will indicate 
that the trial-and-error method is in certain conditions regularly em- 
ployed even in adult human learning. The student is apt to get 




RESULTS OF EFFORTS OF ONE SUBJECT TO TRACE A STAR WHILE 
WATCHING THE REFLECTION OF THE STAR AND OF HIS HAND 

IN A MIRROR 
Note his difficulties in getting away from the lowest point. After Dearborn 

the impression from the usual discussion that trial and error, as a 
method of learning, is confined in its use to animals and children. 
In the experiment suggested the subject is directed to trace 
out the figure of a star by means of its image as seen in a mirror. 
The figure itself and the hand and arm employed are concealed 



io6 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

from direct view by means of a simple screen, as shown in the 
illustration on page 104, and all visual guidance is secured solely 
from the reflection in the upright mirror. In such a test as this 
there is disturbance of the usual relation of visual and motor factors, 
which has to be adjusted. To one familiar with the principles of 
the mirror (and theoretically we all are) the problem is one which 
might very well be reasoned out. . . . The natural reaction is, how- 
ever, not to reason much about it, but to make actual trial of it 
from the start. Typical results of such a trial are indicated in the 
illustration on page 105. (5 : 375-377) 

The possible influence of theoretical instruction in a 
similar experiment is shown by Judd in a report on the 
results of shooting at a target under water. Two groups of 
boys carried on the experiment. One group had been in- 
structed concerning the apparent displacement of the object 
through refraction, and the other group had not. When the 
position of the object was changed by varying the amount of 
water, the boys who had been instructed concerning the 
effect of the water were able to make better records in shoot- 
ing at it than were the boys who had not been so instructed. 

(6: 36-37) 

Kinetoscopic pictures of movements used in instruction. 

— Up to this point we have considered the results of psy- 
chological experiments in which (with the exception of the 
last one described) little attention has been devoted to the 
modifications which would be effected in natural or untutored 
motor learning by the use of instructions. At the opposite 
extreme we have the recent activities of Frank B. Gilbreth, 
who, in his new '' Motion Study," would provide the learner 
or worker with an elaborate analysis of his movements and 
with suggestions for improving his efficiency. The analysis 
and suggestions are to be based on kinetoscopic, or moving- 
picture, photographs of the subject's movements. The ac- 
companying photographs suggest some of the essential ideas 
in the scheme. The kinetoscopic picture reveals in detail all 



KINETOSCOPIC PICTURES USED IN GILBRETH'S MOTION STUDY TO 
INCREASE SKILL OF ARTISANS 

In the left-hand picture note the movement of the workman which consumed about 

one second by the large clock 

107 



lo8 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

the movements made by the subject. Those which are effec- 
tive and valuable can be distinguished from those that are 
ineffective and useless by an examination of the moving pic- 
ture when thrown on a screen. The large clock shown on the 
films in the picture has a single hand which revolves once 
in six seconds. By this means it is possible to calculate just 
how much time is wasted in useless movements. The results 
of a careful analysis of even so skillful and delicate an art as 
surgery show that a great improvement could be effected in 
the operations by eliminating waste motion. (7: 48-50) 

Empirical discussions in gymnastics, music, and pronuncia- 
tions. — Leaving these experimental studies of the acquisition 
of motor skill, let us consider the methods and practices 
which are found in the various school subjects in which motor 
skill plays a part. Here we shall find much empirical discus- 
sion but few scientific data. 

Gymnastics. — Taking up gymnastics, athletics, sports, and 
games first, we find the following points, in terms of our 
discussion on page 99. 

1 . Good form is emphasized. — Great stress is placed upon 
using what are considered to be the best methods of performing 
the acts in question. This is known as emphasizing good 
form. In football, for example, there are considered to be cer- 
tain better or best ways of falling upon the ball, of carrying it, 
of tackling a runner, etc. Similarly, in golf, in tennis, and on 
the track, while certain mediocre or fairly good results may be 
achieved by various methods, in order to compete with the 
most expert it is necessary to use the methods that will direct 
and conserve energy in the most effective and economical ways. 

2. Verbal directions by coach stLpplemerit imitation. — 
While the skilled coach or instructor may often depend 
upon imitation, he also makes extensive use of verbal instruc- 
tions and directions which help the learner to analyze the 
movement or play and to ''get the idea." This is brought 
out very strikingly in the occasional failure of the brilliant, 



ACQUIRING MOTOR CONTROL 



109 



skilled, conscientious player when he tries to be a coach, 
and the occasional brilliant success of a coach who is not 
himself a skilled player. 

3. Explicit analysis of movements sometimes helpful. — 
Such an analysis as is referred to in the preceding para- 
graph often involves explicit attention to the character of the 




American Press Association 



JERRY TRAVERS'S HOLD FOR PUTTING IN PLAYING GOLF 

Note the peculiar interlocking of the little finger of one hand with the index finger 

of the other 

movement to be made. An example of this fact is furnished 
by my own experience in learning to do the kip, or *' snap-up," 
on the horizontal bar. This trick consists in hanging by the 
hands from the bar, swinging back and forth, and then, 
when the body has reached the end of the forward swing, 
kicking up at an angle of about 90 degrees to the direction 
of the trunk of the body. The performer's body then '' snaps 
up " under and behind the bar so that he rests in a vertical 





no TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

position with the bar across the front of his body near the 
hips. The diagram below represents the stages in the trick. 
It commonly takes students from a month to six months 
to learn this trick. Some never succeed in learning it. My 
first instructor depended entirely on imitation and signals. 
He would perform the trick, then ask the students to try, 
and we would proceed to jerk our arms, kick, and thrash 
around in a more or less aimless way. Sometimes he would 
say, '' Kick when I slap you." This signal helped a few of 
the students, but most of us continued to flounder. After 

a time another 

Bar Bar Bar Bar \\ l^StrUCtOr tOOk 

US in hand. He 
showed US the 
trick and ex- 
plained it. He 

First Second Third Fmirth cqi/l '' Vr>n Hn 

position position position position ' 

not need to jerk 

STAGES IN PERFORMING THE KIP ON A HORI- voiir 7\rvc\^ O t 
ZONTAL BAR r ^l, • i 

01 their sock- 
In the third position i indicates the direction of the kick, and , -xr _^ o-r<=»Ql- 
2 the direction in which the body moves after the kick * o 

strength is re- 
quired. The whole trick is to kick at the right time and in 
the right direction. Watch the kick." These general remarks 
were supplemented by specific suggestions such as '' Wait 
longer before you kick. Kick more toward the ceiling." 
Having grasped the idea, many of the students proceeded 
to learn the trick after a relatively brief period of trial and 
accidental success. It is important to notice that in a case 
like this it is very difficult to get the idea merely through 
observation or imitation. For example, the ordinary beginner 
commonly overemphasizes the arm jerk and fails to observe 
the importance of the kick. 

4. Trial ajtd error. — Further comment on the part played 
by trial and accidental success in gymnastic instruction is not 



ACQUIRING MOTOR CONTROL ill 

necessary, since the points made would be the same as in the 
case of tossing balls described above on page loi. 

5. Training in elementary movements sometimes helpful. 
— Separate drill on the most elementary movements is some- 
times emphasized in gymnastic systems which are con- 
structed on the principle of proceeding from the simple to 
the complex. This separate exercise of elementary move- 
ments may be desirable from the standpoint of systematic 
training of all sets of muscles, and in acquiring various ele- 
mentary coordinations which may then play a part in more 
complex coordinations. Swinging Indian clubs furnishes 
good examples. On the other hand, in many cases, such as 
the juggling of balls described above, separate practice on 
the elements is probably a waste of time. In some cases it 
is almost impossible, as in turning a back somersault in the 
air. In this trick the following movements are involved : 
{a) jumping vertically, {b) jerking the knees up so that they 
strike the chest, {c) swinging the arms back over the head, 
and {d) jerking the head back. The turn in the air is caused 
by ib)^ {c), and {d). While there may be some advantage in 
separate practice of each of these to develop strength, there 
is little advantage from the standpoint of developing control 
or coordination. 

Musical technique. — In the acquisition of motor control 
in musical technique, as in playing the violin or piano or in 
singing, we find the following points : 

Disagreements concerning good form. — There is strong 
emphasis upon correct method, or good form, although con- 
siderable disagreement may exist as to what is correct. Thus, 
one teacher may insist that his positions are the only correct 
ones to assume, while another teacher may claim that the first 
one ruins his pupils' chances by requiring such positions. 
Among the more moderate discussions we find such recom- 
mendations as the following, which occurs in Josef Hofmann's 
book entitled '' Piano Playing." 



112 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

Play always with the fingers, that is, move your arms as little 
as possible and hold them and the shoulder muscles quite loosely. 
The "hands should be nearly horizontal, with a slight inclination 
from the elbows toward the keys. Bend the fingers gently and 
endeavor to touch the keys in their centers and with the tips of the 
fingers. (11 : 27) 

In the chapter on Correct Touch and Technique he says : 

A correct fingering is one which permits the longest natural 
sequel of fingers to be used without a break. By earnest thinking 
every player can contrive the fingering that will prove most con- 
venient to him. But, admitting that the great diversity of hands 
prohibits a universal fingering, all the varieties of fingering ought 
to be based upon the principle of a natural sequel. (11 : 35) 

Attention to tones versus attention to movements illustrated 
in vocal technique. — In acquiring musical technique the 
learner's attention is very often directed by his instructor 
upon the movement itself, although the objective results (the 
tone or tones) are also emphasized in some systems. One of 
the best summaries of the historical and scientific aspects of 
the problem here presented, as far as voice training is con- 
cerned, is D. C. Taylor's '' Psychology of Singing." The 
author contrasts {ci) what he calls the mechanical methods 
(which focus the attention of the learner on his vocal appa- 
ratus) with ib) those which place the emphasis on the quality 
of the tone produced and the use of imitation and trial and 
accidental success. In this connection he quotes the following 
contrast between the two systems, written by an author who 
favors the mechanical method. 

If a teacher says, " That tone is harsh ; sing more sweetly," he 
has given no method to his pupil. He has asked the scholar to 
change his tone, but has not shown him how to do it. If, on the 
other hand, he directs the pupil to keep back the pressure of the 
breath or to change the location of the tone, — if he instructs him 
in the correct use of the vocal chords or speaks of the position of 
his tongue, of his diaphragm, of his mouth, etc., — he gives him 



ACQUIRING MOTOR CONTROL 



113 



method. The Italian teachers of the early period of this art had 
so little method that it can hardly be said to have existed with 
them. In fact, the word method as now used [in music] is of 
comparatively modern origin. The founders of the art of singing 
aimed at results directly ; the manner of using the vocal apparatus 
for the purpose of reaching these results troubled them compara- 
tively little. The old Italian teacher took the voice as he found it. 
He began with the simplest and easiest work, and trusted to patient 




INCORRECT POSITION 



CORRECT POSITION 



Positions of little finger illustrated by Josef Hofmann in his book entitled 

" Piano Playing " 

and long-continued practice to develop the vocal apparatus. In all 
this there is no method as we understand the term. The result is 
aimed at directly ; the manner of getting it is not known. There 
is no conscious control of the vocal apparatus for the purpose of 
effecting a certain result. (12 : 316-317) 

In commenting on this quotation Taylor says : 

This sums up beautifully the external aspects of the old Italian 
method, and of modern [mechanical] methods as well. . . . But it 
is a mistake to say that the old masters followed no systematized 



114 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

plan of instruction. . . . [They understood thoroughly] the mean- 
ing of methodical instruction. . . . The only important difference 
between the old and the new systems is this : [the old] one relied 
on instinctive and imitative processes for imparting the correct vocal 
action ; the other seeks to accomplish the same result through the 
mechanical management of the vocal organs. In this regard the 
advantage is all on the side of the old Italian method. (12 : 3 1 7-318) 

Students who are especially interested in vocal training 
should read Taylor's entire discussion. 

Disagreement concerning emphasis on separate training 
of elementary movements. — In musical instruction intensive 
study is commonly given to the elementary movements (fin- 
gering, vocal gymnastics, etc.) apart from their appearance 
in complex compositions. On the other hand, many instructors 
object to the extremes to which this practice is often carried. 
Further discussion of this point will be given in a later chapter, 
in connection with the topic of practice, or drill. 

Learning pronunciation of a foreign language. — As a 
final example of acquiring motor skill we shall consider the 
current practices in learning the pronunciation of a foreign 
language. As far as instruction in American high schools is 
concerned, this topic has received relatively little considera- 
tion, inasmuch as many of the teachers do not speak the lan- 
guage well and many of those who do speak it have not given 
any consideration to the problems of teaching pronunciation. 
In Europe, however, owing to the more common use of a 
foreign language and to the better-trained teachers in some 
of the countries, considerable attention has been devoted to 
the problem of training in pronunciation. The resulting sys- 
tems, or methods of instruction, are becoming known and 
copied in America. The best bibliographies of the Ameri- 
can material with which I am familiar are in Handschin 
(15: 140-149) and Bahlsen (14: 39-41). The chief prob- 
lem of method concerns the value of phonetic instruction in 
learning to speak the language. 



ACQUIRING MOTOR CONTROL 115 

Description of phonetic schemes. — The more elaborate 
schemes of phonetic instruction in pronunciation provide the 
following : {a) Information concerning the anatomy of the or- 
gans of speech and descriptions of the way in which the 
lungs, larynx, vocal chords, uvula, palate, tongue, nose, teeth, 
and lips operate in producing sounds, {b) A list, or series, 
of the elementary sounds of the language, (c) A system of 
phonetic transcription to represent these sounds. These sys- 
tems consist of the ordinary alphabet with diacritical markings 
plus new symbols to represent sounds which cannot be satisfac- 
torily represented by the conventional symbols, (d) Training 
in pronouncing the elementary sounds correctly by making 
extensive use of the material described under (a), (b)^ and (c). 

Phonetic movement connected historically with other m.ove- 
ments. — The great interest which such instruction has aroused 
in Germany is partially explained by its connection with sev- 
eral other movements, among which are the following : (a) The 
investigations of physiologists and physicists concerning the 
production of sound. The works of the Scotch-American 
A. M. Bell (18 19-1905) (not the inventor of the telephone) 
and of Helmholtz (i 821-1894), the great German physicist, 
anatomist, and physiologist, are especially noteworthy in this 
connection, {b) The desires of certain linguistic specialists 
and societies to secure a more uniform pronunciation of the 
native and foreign languages, free from the peculiarities of 
dialect, ic) The introduction of more vital, direct, conversa- 
tional, practical forms of instruction in learning a foreign lan- 
guage, in place of the ordinary grammar-translation method. 
(This movement will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.) 

Vahte of phonetics distinguished from, m^erits of other 
m^ovements. — It is important to distinguish between (a) the 
momentum which the phonetic method has acquired through 
its association with these other movements and {b) its real 
merit as an aid in teaching the pronunciation of a foreign lan- 
guage. There is no necessary connection between (a) and {b). 



Ii6 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

The facts discovered by the physicists and physiologists con- 
cerning the production of sound do not necessarily constitute 
the best basis for teaching a normal person to speak. The 
process of learning pronunciation is a psychological process, 
not a physical or physiological one ; hence data from psychol- 
ogy, not from physics or physiology, furnish the scientific basis 
for teaching pronunciation. Moreover, the desirability of a 
more uniform national pronunciation does not prove that pho- 
netic instruction provides the most economical and effective 
method of learning pronunciation ; nor does the superiority of 
the oral, direct, objective, active method of teaching a lan- 
guage over the grammar-translation method prove the superi- 
ority of the phonetic method of teaching pronunciation. 

Any direct training in pronunciation superior to former 
neglect. — Another point to be kept in mind is that any sys- 
tem of instruction which devotes special attention to correct 
pronunciation will secure better results than one that does 
not. Most of the older systems of language instruction did 
not aim at correct pronunciation ; hence it was not secured. 
But if an instructor who can pronounce correctly himself 
works conscientiously for correct pronunciation by his pupils, 
he may secure it without elaborate phonetic machinery, just 
as the old Italian school of voice instruction secured superior 
results without the aid of modern physics and physiology. 

Only moderate use of phonetics justified in America.— 
The arguments for and against the phonetic method are pre- 
sented at length by Bahlsen (14 : 41-49), with certain con- 
clusions from his own experience concerning the modified 
use of it. Certainly from the standpoint of acquiring a prac- 
tical working pronunciation of a foreign language the amount 
of machinery that has been developed for phonetic instruc- 
tion seems entirely too elaborate. The following ' conclusion 
by Bagster-Collins, in his discussion of the teaching of Ger- 
man, probably provides sufficiently for phonetic instruction as 
an aid in learning pronunciation in American high schools. 



ACQUIRING MOTOR CONTROL 117 

Imitation of the teacher, though not alone sufficient to insure 
a^^roper pronunciation, is the most important means, and when- 
ever imitation fails to bring about the desired result, practical 
explanation of how the troublesome sounds are made must come 
to its aid. A teacher w^ll undoubtedly, by his study of phonetics, 
acquire' a knowledge of the usual systems of phonetic transcrip- 
tions, and benefit his pronunciation thereby ; but any extended 
use of phonetic texts in elementary work in the study of German 
in America is uncalled-for. I would not imply, however, that I do 
not attach great importance to the accurate teaching of pronunci- 
ation, or that I think that even a satisfactory pronunciation of 
German is easily acquired. It requires, on the contrary, great care 
and patience from the first to the last day of the course. The 
foundation must be w^ell laid in the first year, (in fact, the first few 
weeks of the first year are critical), and what is learned then must 
be kept up to the mark, improved wherever possible, through un- 
tiring vigilance on the part of the teacher, if poorer work is not to 
be found in the upper than in the lower classes. (13 : 49) 

Example of simplified pho7tetic scheme. — An interesting 
example of a simplified scheme for phonetic instruction in 
German is the one used by Miss Lydia Schmidt in The Uni- 
versity of Chicago High School. Miss Schmidt studied for 
a year in Berlin under one of the best teachers of phonetics. 
The scheme of phonetic instruction used included all of the 
elements described above on page 115. After several years 
of experience Miss Schmidt decided that much of the so-called 
scientific, theoretical instruction accompanying the phonetic 
training in pronunciation was a waste of time, and that a 
simple introduction based largely on imitation of the teacher 
was quite sufficient. She wrote to her former instructor in 
Berlin and found that the latter had also concluded that all 
of the necessary instruction could be given in a much simpler 
form and in ten practical lessons. Miss Schmidt's own 
scheme includes only five fundamental lessons, based on two 
pages of mimeographed lists of words, of which a few samples 
are printed below. 



Il8 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

DIE DEUTSCHEN LANGEN UND KURZEN VOKALE 

a Vater, kam, fragen, haben, schlafen, Hahn, Knabe, Samen, nahm. 
a fand, Land, krank, Tante, Hand, Arm, Mann, Hammer, Lampe, 

Garten. 
e geben, legen, leben, streben, beten, jener, treten 

DIE DIPHTHONGE 

au Haus, Maus, laufen, Trauben. 
ei weiss, heissen, bleiben, Weile. . . . 

KNACKGERAUSCH (GLOTTAL CATCH) 

Anna, Otto, ach, Anfang, Esel, eben, Ochs, offen, Indien, Ufer, 
Erich, Igel, Immensee, essen, Onkel, Eule, unser. . . . 

The complete list contains about 250 words which are 
used to illustrate some forty sounds. After the introductory 
lessons are completed, attention is constantly given to secur- 
ing correct pronunciation during the later work, as recom- 
mended above by Bagster-Collins. 

Tentative answers to questions of method on page 99. — 
This will conclude our discussion of the methods of instruc- 
tion to be used in acquiring motor control. Many of the prob- 
lems of method involved are covered by the questions which 
we formulated in the beginning of the chapter (p. 99). As 
a summary of the points brought out in the chapter in dis- 
cussing the special subjects of instruction which involve 
motor skill, we may formulate the following tentative answers 
to these questions. 

I. In most cases of motor skill there are certain better 
methods of performance which use human energy or force 
more economically and effectively than others. . The better 
methods are known as good form. In many cases, however, 
good form includes a number of possible methods and per- 
mits of considerable variation to provide for individual dif- 
ferences. Fingering in playing the piano is a good example. 



ACQUIRING MOTOR CONTROL 1 19 

2. Imitation of a correct model is generally the most 
effective way of getting the idea of the act to be performed. 
In some cases it is helpful to provide verbal directions con- 
cerning the best way to perform the act. There is great 
danger of overemphasizing such directions. Methods of 
teaching vocal technique and pronunciation furnish good 
examples of such overemphasis. 

3. Ordinarily the learner's attention should be centered 
on the objective result of the movement, not on the move- 
ment itself. An elaborate analysis of the movements in terms 
of the anatomy and operation of the parts of the body con- 
cerned is generally a waste of time and often prevents the 
attaining of the best results. Musical technique and pronun- 
ciation furnish good examples. Occasionally explicit attention 
to the character of the movement seems to be helpful. 

4. The method of trial and accidental success necessarily 
plays a large part in motor learning. The process may some- 
times be shortened considerably by suggesting to the learner 
the use of correct or better methods of performing the act. 
If these suggestions involve bringing over, or using, coordi- 
nations which have already been mastered in other situations, 
and which the learner can transfer voluntarily, the saving may 
be very great. If the suggested methods involve extensive 
new coordinations, however, the process of trial and error 
v/ill still play a large part. There is danger of wasting time 
in piling up suggestions in order to shorten the process. Again 
musical technique and pronunciation furnish good examples. 

5 . As a rule, training upon elementary movements as they 
are encountered in complex acts or compositions is superior to 
isolated training upon the elementary movements. Frequently 
elementary difficulties encountered in complex performances 
may with advantage be studied separately for a short time and 
then worked back into the whole. A good example is separate 
training upon breathing out while the face is under water in 
learning to swim by the Australian crawl method. 



I20 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES 

General, i. Colvin, S. S. The Learning Process. (The Macmillan 
Company, 191 1.) Pp. 10-23. 

2. Ladd, G. T., and Woodworth, R. S. Ele7nents of Physiological 
Psychology. (Charles Scribner's Sons, 191 1.) Pp. SSSS^S- 

3. Thorndike, E. L. Principles of Teaching. (A, G. Seiler, 1905.) 
Pp. 219-234. Contains the best pedagogical discussion. 

Experimental investigations. 4. Bair, J. H. The Development of 
Voluntary Control. Psychological Review., Vol. VIII, pp. 474-510. An 
experiment in learning to move the ears. 

5. Dearborn, W. F. Experiments in Learning, foumal of Edu- 
cational Psychology, 1 910, Vol. I, pp. 373-388. Describes experiment 
on mirror writing. 

6. JuDD, C. H. Relation of Special Training to General Intelli- 
gence. Educational Review, June, 1908, Vol. XXXVI, pp. 28-42. 
Experiment to show influence of theoretical instruction in acquiring 
motor skill. 

7. Nock, A. J. Efficiency and the High Brow. A7nerican Maga- 
zine, March, 191 3, pp. 48-50. Describes use of kinetoscopic pictures 
to increase skill. 

8. Ordahl, L. E. Consciousness in Relation to Learning. A7neri- 
ca7i fournal of Psychology , 1 91 1 , Vol. XXII, pp. 1 58-21 3. Experiments 
on tossing balls and on left-handed writing. 

9. Richardson, R. F. The Learning Process in the Acquisition 
of Skill. Pedagogical Se7ni7iary , September, 191 2, Vol. XIX, pp. 376- 
394. A summary with bibliography of experimental investigations. 

10. Swift, E. J. Mind in the Maki7ig. (Charles Scribner's Sons, 
1908.) Pp. 169-190. Experiments on the juggling of balls. 

Empirical discussions. Musical technique. 11. Hofmann, Josef. 
Pia7io Playi7tg, a Little Book ofSi7nple Suggestions. (Doubleday, Page 
& Company, 1 908.) A delightful series of essays. See especially pp. 34-39. 

12. Taylor, D. C. The Psychology of Singi7ig. (The Macmillan 
Company, 1908.) An interesting summary of the historical and psycho- 
logical aspects of voice training. 

Phonetic pronunciation. 13. Bagster-Collins, E. W. The Teaching 
of German i7i Secondary Schools. (The Macmillan Company, 1904.) 
A very useful discussion of the whole problem of language instruction. 
See pp. 39-69 on pronunciation. 

14. Bahlsen, L. New methods of Teaching Modern Languages. 
Teacher College Record, May, 1903, Vol. IV. Also published by Ginn 



ACQUIRING MOTOR CONTROL 1 21 

and Company (1905). A very good discussion, with full bibliography. 
See pp. 20-49 for a discussion of phonetics in relation to the Reform 
Movement. 

15. Handschin, C. H. The Teaching of Modern Languages in the 
United States. Bulletin No. j, United States Bureau of Education^ 
191 3, See pp. 140-149 for bibliography on phonetics. 

Handwriting. 16. Freeman, F. N. The Teaching of Handwriting. 
(Houghton Mifflin Company, 19 14.) While the teaching of handwriting 
is not a matter of special interest to high-school teachers, it is worth 
considering as being the one phase of acquiring motor skill in school 
which has been subjected to careful scientific experimental investigation. 
Freeman summarizes the experimental results, evaluates current prac- 
tices, and discusses many principles of motor learning that apply with 
equal force to learning other forms of motor skill. 



CHAPTER VII 

ASSOCIATING SYMBOLS AND MEANINGS: LEARNING 
A FOREIGN VOCABULARY 

Main points of the chapter. — i. One of the principal types of 
learning in the traditional high school is the association of symbols 
and meanings, especially in learning the vocabulary of a foreign 
language. 

2. The ordinary translation method makes these associations 
indirectly via the English symbols ; hence it is less economical 
than the direct method, which dispenses very largely with the use 
of the English symbols as intermediate links. 

3. Ready-made systems of direct instruction are necessary for 
inexperienced teachers. Modifications of the Gouin series system 
are among the best. 

4. According to this system the teacher is an active demonstrator 
of meanings before the class. He uses objects, actions, sketching 
on the blackboard, charts, and various other devices. 

5. Systematic oral exercises are supplemented by easy reading 
and the gradual development of grammatical usage. The use of 
English is almost entirely eliminated. 

6. All the conversational work must be definitely planned and 
systematized. 

7. Pupils must be given ample opportunities to use the language 
in class. 

Predominant process in foreign-language instruction. — 

In some aspects of high-school instruction the type of learn- 
ing process most involved is the association of symbols and 
meanings. The most striking example is learning the vocabu- 
lary of a foreign language. The mental activity in this case 
consists largely in building up thousands of connections be- 
tween English symbols and foreign symbols, or between 

122 



ASSOCIATING SYMBOLS AND MEANINGS 123 

meanings and foreign symbols. The high-school pupil pos- 
sesses already a large stock of meanings associated with 
English symbols. The problem is to build up corresponding 
associations of these meanings with foreign symbols. 

Example of associating ''''gargoyle " zvith its meanijig. — 
An example of the process of establishing an association be- 
tween a meaning and a symbol is the following : If I ask an 
undergraduate class in The University of Chicago if they 
know the meaning of gargoyle, most of them will say they 
do not. Yet many of the latter really have the meaning but 
do not have it connected with this symbol or name, for if 
I ask, '' Have you ever noticed the strange ornamental fig- 
ures, uncouth animals or men, on the cornices of some of 
the university buildings, particularly on the gate to the Hull 
biological laboratories } " many of the students will reply 
that they are very familar with them but did not know what 
they were. By this statement they usually mean that they 
did not know the name, or symbol, for them. They had the 
idea, or meaning, but not the conventional symbol for it. 
To be sure, this idea, or meaning, could be enriched or 
supplemented considerably by commenting on the fact that 
the gargoyles are one feature of the medieval type of archi- 
tecture which the university has adopted ; that they are said 
to have been used in the Middle Ages as a means of scar- 
ing away demons and warding off evil influences ; and that 
the scientific spirit that dominates the biological laboratories 
which they adorn is the antithesis of the medieval super- 
stitious spirit which they represent. We shall not be con- 
cerned here, however, with this process of enriching meanings, 
but shall concern ourselves simply with the methods of asso- 
ciating symbols with meanings that are already possessed 
by the students. 

Examples of associating sit7tations and responses. — The 
process of associating meanings and symbols is one example 
of the more general psychological process of associating 



124 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

situations and responses. When a person has made a cer- 
tain response to a given situation and the response has been 
accompanied by satisfaction, the next time the same situation 
recurs the same response will tend to appear. The situation 
may be any kind of experience and the responses may be 
equally varied, including ideas, emotions, and actions. Thus, 
in response to the situation ''being thirsty" one may think, 
'' Where can I get a drink .? " or say, '' Please bring me a glass 
of water." Examples of the association of motor responses 
with situations were given in the preceding chapter. Thus, 
in tossing balls by the left-to-right circular motion, to the sit- 
uation '' ball tossed up " there occurs the habitual response 
'' hand moved to left to catch the other." In the horizontal- 
bar example, to the situation " body at certain part of the 
forward swing" there occurs the response ''kick." 

Types of association in reading and speaking a foreign 
language. — In the case of learning the vocabulary of a for- 
eign language the following two types of connections are 
made between situations and responses : In reading the for- 
eign language the situations consist of the printed foreign 
symbols and the responses which are desired consist of the 
appropriate meanings ; in expressing one's self in the foreign 
tongue the situations consist of meanings (that is, what one 
desires to say) 'and the desired responses consist of the appro- 
priate spoken or written symbols. Hence we may describe 
the process of acquiring the vocabulary of a foreign language 
as building up mental connections between foreign symbols 
and meanings in reading, and building up mental connec- 
tions between meanings and foreign symbols in expression. 

Translation method forms associations indirectly via 
English symbol. — The ordinary method of teaching a 
foreign language by translation, proceeds to secure the asso- 
ciations between foreign symbols and meanings by a round- 
about, or indirect, method, namely, via the English symbol. 
This method may be represented by the following diagrams : 



ASSOCIATING SYMBOLS AND MEANINGS 125 

Indirect method in reading 
Foreign symbols. Meaning (or idea) 



English symbols 

Indirect method in expression 
Meaning (or idea) Foreign symbols 



English symbols 

Direct method dispenses largely ivith intermediate English 
link. — The direct method of teaching a foreign language, 
on the other hand, endeavors to dispense as far as possible 
with the use of the English symbols as intermediate links. 
It endeavors to establish directly the associations between 
the foreign symbols and their meanings. The processes may 
be represented by the following diagrams : 

X>i?'ect method i?i reading 
Foreign symbols — 5^ meaning 

Direct method in expression 
Meaning ^foreign symbols 

Both systems aim to develop ability to think in the foreign 
language. — The associations, or connections, represented 
in the diagrams of the direct method are the ones which we 
are interested in establishing ultimately in the student's mind 
in teaching him the language. The use of the English sym- 
bol as an intermediate step in the indirect method is con- 
sidered, even by the users of this method, to be merely a 
temporary device for arriving at the more direct association. 
Both systems aim to enable the student eventually to think 
in German or French, or whatever the language may be, 
without recourse to the English symbols. 



126 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

Direct method more economical than indirect. — The 
greater economy of the direct method as compared with the 
indirect becomes apparent when we consider both systems 
in terms of the process of association. When we compare 
the diagrams given above, it appears that two associations 
must be practiced or made by the indirect method for every 
07te by the direct method. Even when the use of the Enghsh 
symbol as an intermediate hnk is only temporary, this is 
probably uneconomical. But when we consider that each 
time the indirect connection via the English symbol is made 
with resulting satisfaction the stronger becomes the chance 
that this connection will persist and be operative in the 
future, we see the immense waste that the translation, or 
indirect, method may entail, for it tends to enable the learner 
to read or express himself no faster than he can translate. 
This will certainly be much slower than the corresponding 
pace achieved by the direct method. Moreover, when we 
take into consideration the large amount of reconstruction 
in the order of words that is often necessitated in translating 
from one language into another, it would seem that the in- 
direct method is even more wasteful than is suggested by 
the comparison in the preceding sentence. 

Possibilities of indirect more obvious than of direct 
method. — One reason why the indirect, or translation, method 
is commonly used is because its possibilities are so obvious. 
It seems self-evident that the thing to do when presented 
with students who already have an elaborate system of asso- 
ciations of English symbols with meanings, is to proceed to 
utilize this system by coupling with it the corresponding 
foreign symbols. On the other hand, it is not easy to devise 
offhand a scheme of instruction that will build up directly 
the associations between meanings and foreign symbols that 
we want eventually to achieve. For one reason, our ordinary 
method of arousing a meaning in another person's mind 
is to use the language that he knows. If we are deprived of 



ASSOCIATING SYMBOLS AND MEANINGS 127 

this means, we are at a loss to know what to do. In spite of 
this apparent difficulty it is possible to devise means of in- 
struction which place the emphasis upon direct connections 
of the foreign symbols with meanings, and which necessi- 
tate only occasional recourse to the use of English symbols 
as intermediate links. 

Direct connections easily established with objective expe- 
rie7tces. — Opportunities for establishing these direct connec- 
tions most easily are found in using objects and actions as 
points of departure. If a teacher holds up an object (for 
example, a book) and utters at the same time the German 
symbol {das Buch), a direct association is formed between 
the idea of the object and the German symbol. To be sure, 
other associations also occur, including possibly the connec- 
tion of the object perceived with its English symbol (book), 
and the connection of the latter with the German symbol. 
The point to notice, however, is that the direct connection 
which we desire to establish (namely, between the thought 
of the object and the German symbol) has been started and 
emphasized. All of the associations which we have men- 
tioned may be represented by the following diagram : 

(German symbol) das Buch _» book (English symbol) 



(Object) 

The possibilities of teaching foreign common nouns, and 
adjectives of form, size, and color, directly, by elaborations of 
the method suggested above, are numerous and obvious. In 
some of the European countries extensive sets of charts, 
pictures, lantern slides, and apparatus have been devised 
for this purpose. 

Direct teaching of verbs emphasized in some systems. — 
Not only nouns and adjectives but verbs also may be readily 



128 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

taught by the direct method ; in fact, the teaching of a 
series of verbs has certain advantages according to the ad- 
vocates of some direct systems. The chief advantage claimed 
is that in a series of actions directed toward some definite 
end (for example, opening a door) there is a more or less 
necessary sequence. This sequence is easily grasped by the 
learner as a series of pictures, ideas, or meanings, and serves 
as a simple and definite basis for building up a corresponding 
series of foreign words, phrases, or sentences. 

Some of the other parts of speech, such as prepositions of 
place and adverbs of manner, present no difficulties in direct 
teaching ; but others, such as abstract nouns, do present cer- 
tain difficulties. In a systematic course, however, these diffi- 
culties may be reduced to very small proportions, as will be 
seen later in the chapter. 

Direct method requires much oral work. — Obviously, 
efficient instruction by a direct system requires much oral 
work by the teacher and oral practice by the pupils. Hence, 
the teacher must be skilled in speaking the language. Unfor- 
tunately many teachers of French or German in American 
high schools and colleges lack this essential qualification, 
although they may have a good reading knowledge of the 
language and understand its grammar thoroughly. Under 
these circumstances, probably the best they can do is to use 
the indirect, or translation, method to begin with. On the 
other hand, in many of our large high schools there are 
teachers who speak German or French fluently and are com- 
petent to use a direct system, but who often fail to do so 
because of ignorance of the possibilities. 

Is oral presentation more effective than visual f — In ad- 
dition to its advantage in providing direct associations be- 
tween meanings and symbols, the oral method of teaching 
a foreign language might prove to be even more advanta- 
geous if material presented in oral forms would be retained 
better than material presented visually. Unfortunately the 



ASSOCIATING SYMBOLS AND MEANINGS 129 

considerable number of experiments which have been con- 
ducted to determine the relative efficiency of various forms 
of presentation do not agree in their conclusions ; hence they 
do not furnish a guide for practice. (See 8.) 

Does mastery of promniciation delay progress in read- 
ing? — Even if oral presentation were advantageous from 
the standpoint of retention, the reproduction by the student, 
which ordinarily accompanies it, involves in the case of the 
French language certain difficulties of pronunciation which 
might seem to offset the advantage. It could be argued that a 
bright, mature student might learn to read French fairly well 
in six months, but that it would take much longer if his train- 
ing in reading had to wait upon a mastery of the difficulties 
of pronouncing. Hence it might be asked. Why delay the 
accomplishment of a relatively easy thing, namely, reading 
(which is all that is desired in many cases), in order to master 
a difficult process which is not essential to the purpose ? 

Further facts based on reliable measurements are needed 
before we can give a final answer to this question. These 
measurements should show (i) how long it takes an average 
class to secure a reading knowledge of French by the trans- 
lation method, (2) how long it takes to get a fair mastery 
of pronunciation, (3) how long it takes a class which uses a 
direct method to acquire a reading knowledge. The answer 
commonly given by the advocates of the direct method is that 
'' experience shows that superior results in grammar and read- 
ing are secured by the direct approach." Until more adequate 
evidence is presented, this position will be assumed to be true, 
and the following discussion will be based on this assumption. 

A ready-made direct method needed for inexperienced 
teachers. — A skilled, experienced teacher may himself 
develop from the experiences of the pupils the material to be 
used in the direct method. Inasmuch as such teachers are 
rare in American high schools, however, and as much of the 
instruction is given by inexperienced, relatively untrained 



I30 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

teachers, it is desirable to provide a ready-made direct system 
that the teacher can use as easily as a ready-made grammar- 
translation method. This is a phase of educational reform 
that is often overlooked by educational reformers. If they 
wish their reforms to secure much practical momentum, it 
is necessary to get them definitely organized in the form of 
textbooks or classroom materials that the relatively untrained 
teacher can use. The persistence of many relatively inferior 
methods and the vogue of many inferior fads and innovations 
are due largely to the fact that they have been definitized and 
commercialized in such a way that any teacher may easily 
take them up and put them into practice. 

Modifications of the Gouin system among the best. — One 
of the best of the direct systems provides such a definite body 
of material for the teacher to use, but the method of using 
it makes it somewhat difficult to commercialize it profitably. 
This is the Gouin-series method. It consists primarily of 
sets of connected conversational exercises, which are care- 
fully graded and organized so as to develop systematically 
the student's vocabulary, power of expression, and grammati- 
cal mastery of the language. Each lesson unit consists of a 
series of some fifteen to twenty-five sentences which describe 
or relate a connected series of events. 

Example of a Gotiin series. — The following is one of 
the first series that might be used in teaching English 
to foreigners : 

I OPEN THE DoOR 

I go toward the door. 
I approach the door. 
I arrive at the door. 
I stop at the door. 

I stretch out my arm. 
I take hold of the knob. 
I turn the knob. 
The door opens. 



ASSOCIATING SYMBOLS AND MEANINGS 13 1 

I pull the door. 

The door moves. 

The door turns on its hinges. 

I open the door wide, 

I let go of the knob. 

Teacher presents series orally with dramatization. — The 
teacher presents this series of sentences orally, broken up 
into the three parts as indicated. He parallels each sentence 
with the corresponding action and uses supplementary ges- 
tures to explain the meaning of individual words such as / 
and door. He aims first to impress clearly upon the minds 
of the students the series of events, actions, or pictures rep- 
resented by the first four sentences. In order to do this he 
places special emphasis upon the series of verbs used. Hav- 
ing made each sentence clear by means of gestures, and 
having established the series of events in the minds of the 
pupils, he repeats the series of actions with the appropriate 
sentences three or four times, until the pupils have probably 
fixed them in mind. 

He may then call upon one pupil to come before the 
class and simply go through the actions. He may then call 
on another pupil to go through the actions and give the 
appropriate verbs. He may then have a pupil go through 
the actions and repeat the corresponding sentences. The 
teacher then presents the second part of the lesson after 
the same fashion. Various modifications of this procedure 
may be introduced. 

Subjects of other lessons or series. — Other lessons have 
the following subjects : I shut the door. I walk. I go down- 
stairs. I go upstairs. I wash my face. I shave myself. The 
cook boils some water. The maid sets the table. I seat my- 
self at the table. I drink a cup of tea. 

The following series is the first one taught in the instruction 
in elementary German at Miami University, Oxford, Ohio. 



132 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

ICH LESE IN EINEM BUCH 

Ich nehme ein Buch. 

Ich nehme es in die rechte Hand. 

Ich offne es. 

Ich wende die Seiten. 
Ich suche die erste Seite. 
Ich finde die erste Seite. 
Ich lese den Titel. 

Ich sehe das Bild an. 
Ich blattere weiter. 
Ich lese in dem Buch. 

Ich mache das Buch zu. 

Ich lege das Buch auf den Tisch. 

Conversational Phrases 

Konnen Sie lesen ? Ja ? Nein ? 

So weit. Ich danke Ihnen. Verstehen Sie das .? 

Wiederholen Sie das, bitte. Sie konnen gehen. 

Imaginary as zvell as objective sitiLations are tised. — It is 
obvious that not all of the objects or actions involved in all of 
the series can be actually provided in the classroom. By means 
of description, gesture, and sketches, however, an imaginary 
situation is easily created, and the pupils fill in with some 
form of imagery the details that are not actually presented. 

This is sufficient to suggest some of the possibilities of the 
Gouin method. Some of the series used in Europe can be 
used with little modification in America to teach German or 
French. Others need to be revised or varied to adapt them 
to American conditions, to local needs, and to the ages of 
the students. 

Modifications of Goimt method fi^oin Frankfurt. — Bagster- 
Collins gives the following example of a freer adaptation of the 



ASSOCIATING SYMBOLS AND MEANINGS 133 

series material as seen in Frankfurt, Germany, in the classes 
of Director Walter, one of the greatest advocates of the direct 
method. The German students were studying English. 

A boy was told to describe a trip to Marburg, a la Gouin. 
[He proceeded as follows : ] 



I 

2 

3 

4 

5 
6 

7 
8 

9 

TO 



go to the door, 
open the door, 
go out. 

go downstairs, 
walk across the hall, 
leave the house. 
am in the street, 
see a car passing, 
motion to the conductor. 
The car stops. 



The catalogue of successive actions now gives place to conver- 
sation more natural in character. Another pupil acts the part of 
the conductor and asks how far he is going. (4 : 82-83) 

Another example of the modified Gouin method as used 
in Frankfurt is the following : 

As the teacher enters the room . . . the movements of the 
teacher are either described by individual pupils or by the class 
[as follows :] 

1. You are entering the room. 

2. You are stepping onto the platform. 

3. You are pushing back your chair. 

4. You are sitting down. 

5. You are opening the inkstand. 

6. You are taking the pen. 

7. You are dipping it into the inkstand, etc. (4 : 83) 

Includes conversational phrases for class routine. — The 
Gouin method also includes series of sentences to be used in 



134 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

the ordinary routine of class work. For students who are 
learning English these include the following : mi 

Pay attention. 

Say the sentence. 

Repeat the sentence. 

Go ahead. 

Good ; very good. 

I am very well pleased. 

Is that enough ? 

No, not yet. 

Yes, thank you. 

Have you understood everything ? 

Occasions are arranged so that pupils will be required to 
use these. For example, one pupil calls on another and 
says, ''Give the next sentence." After the sentence is given, M 
another pupil may say, ''Very good" or "I congratulate you" ' 
or " How well you repeat it." Each of these pupils is made 
responsible during a portion of the period for contributing 
some specific sentence to the conversation. 

Printed sheets distributed after oral presentation. — These 
examples give some notion of the type of material used by 
the Gouin system and the method of using it. The difficulty 
of commercializing it is somewhat greater than in the case 
of a textbook method, inasmuch as the material is not placed 
in the hands of the students until it has been presented orally 
by the teacher. This necessitates having each lesson printed 
upon a separate sheet. These sheets are kept unbound. After 
the teacher has taught a given series (for example, the one on 
opening the door), the printed sheets of the lesson are dis- 
tributed to the class. Each pupil copies it into a blank book 
at home, studies it, and returns it next day, when he is sup- 
posed to be able to recite it completely. Such a procedure 
usually necessitates the mimeographing or printing of the sets 
of lessons that are to be used in a given school. However, 



ASSOCIATING SYMBOLS AND MEANINGS 135 

in view of the discussion given above on page 39, this is a 
step that should be taken if the superiority of the educational 
results is apparent. 

Reference to history of Gotdn method. — The teacher or 
prospective teacher of German or French who desires to begin 
to use an organized direct method should read the article by 
Professor C. H. Handschin of Miami University, Oxford, 
Ohio, which was published in the School Review for March, 
191 2, and is entitled ''A Historical Sketch of the Gouin-Series 
System of Teaching Modern Languages and of its Use in the 
United States." After reading the article it would be well to 
write to its author for further assistance. 

Another valuable source of suggestions for using direct 
methods is E. W. Bagster-Collins's excellent manual of method 
entitled '' The Teaching of German in Secondary Schools " 
(4). The general suggestions offered in the book apply to 
the teaching of French as well. 

Objective oral lessons primarily preparatory to reading. — 
Inasmuch as learning to read a foreign language is much 
more important for Americans than learning to speak it, the 
relation of direct oral methods to learning to read should be 
made clear. This relation is brought out by Bagster-Collins 
in the following quotations. 

In spite of the objections we have raised to making an oral 
command of the language anything more than a subordinate aim 
(comipared with the general aim — reading), we must not forget 
that conversational exercises occupy an important place in modem 
language teaching, pedagogically considered ; although not to be 
regarded as an end in themselves, they are an indispensable means 
to an end. Experience teaches us that a just proportion of time 
spent on oral exercises gives a firmer grasp of the grammar and 
vocabulary. (4 : 23-24) 

This relation of oral work in the foreign language to learn- 
ing to read is brought out in the following quotation from 
Handschin's article. 



136 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

This method does away with the use of the mother tongue in 
the classroom, and it gives Sprachgefuhl [language feeling]. In 
the Miami adaptation of the Gouin method one hundred lessons 
(of from eighteen to twenty-five sentences each) in German, and 
one hundred and seventy-five in French, are taught. This number 
is considered sufficient to give Sprachgefuhl. Here the plan differs 
from Gouin's in that his plan was to teach the entire vocabulary 
of the foreign language by means of the series before allowing the 
student to go on to literary study. In the Miami plan the reading 
of an easy text is begun about the second week. In the teaching 
of grammar Gouin is forsaken, and the grammar is taught induc- 
tively, many devices of the reform method being used, such as 
reproducing the lesson in various persons, numbers, and tenses, etc. 
After the principal forms have been taught inductively, a regular 
grammar is taken up little by little. In reading-texts, likewise, the 
reform textbooks are given the preference. The advanced work 
is conducted as in other schools, except that the foreign language 
is used almost exclusively in the classroom." (6 : 174-175) 

Systematic mastery of all phases of language provided. — 
This quotation suggests the gradual systematic mastery of the 
foreign language in all its aspects by beginning with a cor- 
rect, direct, objective, oral approach. A small working vocab- 
ulary having been acquired in the first few weeks, reading 
is begun, but not translation. The reading being simple, it 
may be discussed and rehearsed in the foreign tongue. New 
words can often be explained by gesture, synonym, reference 
to the context, or discussion in the foreign language. Occa- 
sionally it will be necessary to give the English equivalent, 
but in such a case the foreign word immediately gets its set- 
ting or meaning in the foreign context, and the tendency to 
think of the English equivalent does not persist very long. 
Meanwhile the oral series lessons are continued and correct 
grammatical usage established. As the general grammatical 
terms become useful they are introduced in the foreign lan- 
guage. Very few general grammatical statements or rules 
will be necessary. At all stages of the work charts and 



ASSOCIATING SYMBOLS AND MEANINGS 137 



HrSTER 



VOR 



objective devices of all sorts are used. One of these charts is 
shown below and is intended to teach the list of German prep- 
ositions (a7i, mif, in, hmter, 7iebe7i, vor, ilber, tinter, zwischen) 
which govern either the accusative or the dative. The mean- 
ings of the prepositions are suggested directly by their posi- 
tions on the picture of the wagon (except for neb en and an), 
and the device is helpful in providing a means of almost 
instant recall. 

Gramfnatical tisage established by the direct method. — 
The general principles of association upon which this chapter 
is based are further illustrated by the training in grammatical 
usage provided in 

the direct system \mjf 

of instruction. If 
we think of gram- 
matical usage in 
terms of associa- 
tions, it is clear 
that the associa- 
tions that we desire to build up are associations between words- 
in sentences. This is true in the case of all grammatical re- 
lations such as the relations between the forms of adjectives 
and nouns, the forms of verbs and subjects, etc. This being 
the case, it is evident that extensive training in actual use 
of the forms in their natural connections is much more im- 
portant than the study of tabulated forms in connections 
which are unlike the associations that occur in the actual 
use of the language. An example of such specific training 
in grammatical usage in learning German is given by Bagster- 
Collins in the following words : 

The method will be largely oral. Instead of asking questions 
about grammar or being content with listening to the recitation of 
paradigms, we will talk grammar. That is to say, we will arrange 
a kind of conversation, rather oral exercise in the form of question 
and answer, of such a nature that the manner of the question will 




UNTER 



138 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

force the pupil to employ the grammatical point which the teacher 
wishes to emphasize. For example, suppose one wishes to teach 
the weak declension of the adjective, more particularly one case — 
the accusative singular. For nouns let us take objects lying on the 
teacher's desk, things with [the German name of] which the pupils 
are very familiar, so that they can concentrate their attention on 
the one point to be learned. Our material, for the present, will be 
pencils of various colors, books, and chalk. It should be made 
clear to the class what the teacher wishes done. It is understood 
also that they are always to answer in complete sentences. If the 
class has learned the forms of the weak declension [which would 
have been taught gradually in the series material], the teacher can 
simply ask the first question ; if not, of course, he will have to 
answer the first question himself in order to start the class. 

Welchen Bleistift habe ich in der Hand ? 

Sie haben den roten Bleistift in der Hand. 

Welchen Bleistift habe ich jetzt in der Hand ? 

Sie haben den blauen Bleistift in der Hand. 

Was nehme ich jetzt in die Hand ? 

Sie nehmen die weil^e Kreide in die Hand. 

Fraulein M., nehmen sie die rote Kreide. Welche Kreide nimmt 
Fraulein M. ? 

Sie nimmt die rote Kreide. 

Worauf lege ich jetzt das braune Buch ? 

Sie legen das braune Buch auf den Tisch (auf den grol^en 
Tisch, etc.). (4: 124-125) 

Supplementary cautions. Direct teacher must be active 
and alert. — Finally, if teachers are going to use the direct 
method, it is important that they observe certain cautions which 
are not essentially related to the general point of this chapter 
but which it will be well to emphasize here. The first point 
to keep in mind is that the direct teacher is an active dem- 
onstrator of meanings. This means that during much of 
the instruction, especially during the first few months, he will 
be on his feet most of the time, active and alert, using all 
possible devices, including actions, objects, sketching on, the 



ASSOCIATING SYMBOLS AND MEANINGS 139 

blackboard, etc., to secure attention to the meanings. Under 
these circumstances a tall reading stand upon which to place 
the material to which he refers is much better than a desk. 
If he is teaching a Gouin series, even if he feels fairly sure 
that he has it memorized, it is well to have it on the stand 
for reference, for, as we shall see in the next chapter, it is 
important to repeat it exactly the same every time during its 
oral presentation, in order to avoid introducing interfering 
associations into the pupil's learning. 

All co7iversational work nitist be definitely planned. — 
The other two cautions to which attention should be given 
can be quoted to advantage from Bagster-Collins. The first 
concerns definite planning. He says : 

In order to derive the greatest good from colloquial exercises, 
they should be clearly planned to do definite work. We talk with 
a purpose and not simply to hear our own voices. The work in 
speaking should at every turn be vitally connected with the other 
work of the class. It should not be regarded as something outside, 
or at the most loosely linked with the main system — a sort of re- 
laxation from the study of grammar or translation. . . . We must 
ever reject colloquial exercises that lead to nothing — that are mere 
talk. Such work is unworthy of the school. The aimless, rambling 
conversations often met with in books on the so-called natural 
method are to be condemned. (4 : 73-74) 

Students mtLst be given ample opportunity to talk. — The 
final caution is the following : 

After all, one of the great secrets of doing successful work in 
conversation is to stimulate the pupils to do the greater part of it. 
Let the teacher talk as much as is necessary to make what he 
wants to do clear ; then let him see that the class does more talking 
than he does. (4 : 74) 

In order that the necessary opportunities for such responses 
on the part of students may be provided, it is important that 
the beginning language classes should be small. This is being 



I40 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

well provided for in some good large high schools by limiting 
these classes to fifteen or twenty pupils. In the smaller high 
schools this matter would probably adjust itself. 

Conclusion of discussion of forming associations. — This 
will conclude our discussion of the type of learning that in- 
volves primarily the associating of symbols and meanings. The 
acquiring of a foreign vocabulary has been treated at consider- 
able length as an example of this type, because of the large 
practical importance of the issues involved. Other examples 
of the general process of association as carried on in school 
may be found in Thorndike's '' Principles of Teaching," 
pp. 1 12-123. 

The two types of learning which we have considered so far 
are (i) acquiring motor control and (2) associating symbols 
and meanings. In each case we have been concerned with the 
best methods of starting correct associations. There remains 
the problem of determining the best methods of making these 
correct associations /^rM^;^^;^/. This problem will be discussed 
in the next chapter, under the title of Practice or Drill. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES 

General discussions of association. — i . Colvin, S. S. The Learning 
Process. (The Macmillan Company, 191 1.) Pp. 128-158. 

2. James, William. Principles of Psychology. (Henry Holt and 
Company, 1890.) Vol. I, chaps, iv and xiv. Also, Talks to Teachers. 
(Henry Holt and Company, 1899.) Chap, ix, 

3. Thorndike, E. L. Principles of Teaching. (A. G. Seller, 1905.) 
Chap, viii, pp. i lo-i 23. Numerous exercises furnish profitable points for 
discussion of various phases of high-school teaching to which the principles 
of association apply. 

Direct methods of language instruction. — 4. Bagster-Collins. 
The Teaching of German in Secondary Schools. (The Macmillan Com- 
pany, 1904.) An excellent manual of method. See especially chap, iv, 
pp. 70-104. 

5. Clarahan, M. M. An Experimental Study of Methods of Teach- 
ing German. {University of Missouri Bulletin.^ Educational Series, 



ASSOCIATING SYMBOLS AND MEANINGS 141 

Vol. I, No. 6.) A comparison of the grammatical method with a direct 
reading method. 

6. Handschin, C. H . a Historical Sketch of the Gouin-Series System 
of Teaching Modern Languages and of its Use in the United States. (School 
Review, March, 191 2, Vol. XX, pp. 170-175.) A very suggestive and 
practical article. 

7. Handschin, C. H. The Teaching of Modern Languages in the 
United States. Bulletin No. j, of the United States Bureau of Educa- 
tion, 1 91 3, pp. 94-101. Contains bibliography of nearly all American 
publications on the teaching of modern languages. May be secured gratis 
from_ Bureau of Education at Washington. Very valuable. 

8. Henmon, V. A. C. The Relation between Mode of Presentation 
and Retention. Psychological Review, March, 1 91 2. Vol. XIX, pp. 79-96. 
Reviews results of psychological experiments. 



CHAPTER VIII 

PRACTICE OR DRILL 

Automatizing Motor and Mental Associations 

Main points of the chapter. — i . After associations have beer 
correctly started, they should be made automatic by effective econom- 
ical practice. 

2. Feelings of satisfaction or success and attitudes of zeal and 
concentration of attention are essential or especially helpful in this 
process. 

3. In memorizing, the method of correct recall is helpful because 
it involves concentration of attention. 

4. Memorizing by repeating the whole selection every time i 
superior because it does not waste time on useless associations am 
because it secures concentration of attention. 

5. Time should not be wasted on accessory processes, such as 
thumbing dictionaries and copying problems, but should be concen- 
trated on the real processes which are to be automatized. 

6. It is probably more economical and effective to distribute 
periods of practice and repetitions in memorizing than it is to make 
them relatively continuous. 

Automatizing should follow correct start. — The two pre- 
ceding chapters discussed methods of learning to make cor- 
rect connections, or associations, in acquiring motor skill and 
associating symbols and meanings. In each of these cases it 
is important to make a correct start. Thus, in learning to toss 
balls it is desirable to introduce as early as possible the right- 
to-left circular motion, and in learning a foreign language it 
is important to establish as directly as possible the connec- 
tion between the foreign symbols and their meanings. In the 
present chapter we shall consider the problem of providing 

142 



PRACTICE OR DRILL 143 

sufficient practice or drill to make connections, or associations, 
automatic, but it is important always to keep in mind the 
necessity of getting started right before this process of autom- 
atizing is emphasized. 

Only correct practice makes perfect. — In discussing the 
use of the method of trial and accidental success by animals 
and children, Kirkpatrick calls attention to the importance of 
correct practice in the following words : 

It is not to be understood that the most economical mode of 
reaching favorable results is necessarily acquired before the reaction 
becomes established as a habit. If a series of movements has favor- 
able results more quickly than any other series of movements that 
has been tried, it may become established as a habit, although it is 
far from the shortest and most economical mode of securing the 
result. It is not true, therefore, that practice necessarily makes 
perfect. Practice may just as readily establish an imperfect and 
i.neconomical mode of reaching an end. This is an important prin- 
iple to be recognized by teachers, who should be satisfied so long 
ts a pupil is changing for the better in anything that he is doing, 
but should take care that he does not form a fixed habit before a 
reasonable degree of perfection has been attained. (5 : 117) 

Similarly, in his discussion of skill in typewriting, Book says : 

•, Great effort wrongly or carelessly applied is even more detrimental 
to progress than a simple lapse in attention or effort. . . . The 
tendency to slight the associations in the last stage of their develop- 
ment and to push ahead too fast can, of course, best be overcome, 
in typewriting, by not always practicing at maximum speed, for the 
effort for speed usually means that attention deserts the details of 
the work. To perfect carefully the elemental associations it will 
therefore be found better, practically, to practice most of the time 
for accuracy alone and only a small part of the time for speed — a 
custom generally followed by the best typewriting schools. (12 : 179) 

Examples of automatizing associations. — Having made 
sure that the correct connections are started, the next prob- 
lem is to provide the best conditions for effective and 



144 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

economical automatizing of them. For example, if a student in 
high school is learning to write German script, after making 
sure that he knows the correct forms of the letters and can 
make them correctly when concentrating his attention upon 
them, it becomes necessary to provide sufficient practice so 
that he will be able to write them rapidly without much atten- 
tion to them. In other words, the process of writing should 
be made so automatic that his attention may be concentrated 
upon the thought to be expressed, while his writing move- 
ments are executed automatically. 

Similarly, in learning to read German the correct direct 
connections between symbols and meanings should be made 
so automatic that the reader does not have to stop and 
think in order to discover the meaning. Other examples 
occur in connection with memorizing. Thus, in a literature 
class, if a poem has been read and enjoyed, it may be de- 
sirable to fix it permanently in the pupils' minds for future 
use and enjoyment ; and in physics and trigonometry, after 
the fundamental formulae have been derived and are under- 
stood, it is often desirable to memorize them so that they may 
be recalled automatically whenever it is necessary to use them. 

All of these examples are simple illustrations of the for- 
mulae concerning habit formation which we paraphrased from 
James on page 31 in our discussion of economy in manage- 
ment, namely, make habitual as early as possible as many use- 
ful acts as possible, in order that the attention may be free 
to solve new problems as they present themselves. The 
pedagogical problem is to discover the most effective and 
economical forms of practice to be used in making acts or 
responses habitual or automatic. 

Examples of experimental investigations. Learning teleg- 
raphy. — Considerable experimental work has been done by 
psychologists in studying the progress made by individuals 
during periods of practice. Historically the most interesting 
and best known of the studies made in America is one by 



PRACTICE OR DRILL 



145 



Bryan and Harter on '' Learning the Telegraphic Language," 
pubHshed in the Psychological Review in 1897 (Vol. IV, 



120 




40 



"VTeeks of practice 



EFFECTS OF NINE MONTHS OF PRACTICE IN LEARNING TELEGRAPHY. 

TWO SUBJECTS 

Note the plateau in the receiving curve of each subject. After Bryan and Harter, 
from Thorndike's " Educational Psychology " 

pp. 27-53) and 1899 (Vol. VI, pp. 345-375). This study 
was based on testimony obtained from many telegraphers, 
including experts as well as beginners, and upon carefully 



146 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

measured tests of the progress made by students who were 
learning telegraphy. The improvement made by two of these 
students is represented in the curves shown in the illustration 
on page 145. A rise in the curves represents increase in speed 
for sending or receiving telegraphic messages, and move- 
ment from left to right represents increase in the number 
of weeks of practice. 

In the curves which represent the ability to receive mes- 
sages it appears that the learner made a rapid improvement 
for about fourteen weeks, then improved at a slower rate for 
about ten weeks, then improved more rapidly again. The 
periods of little improvement are known as " plateaus." 
Further reference to the results of this investigation will be 
made later in the chapter. 

Acquiring skill in typezvnting. — One of the most elabo- 
rate of the American studies of practice was made by W. F. 
Book on the acquisition of skill in typewriting. This was pub- 
lished in 1908 under the title '' The Psychology of Skill" (12). 
It describes most minutely the progress made by several 
subjects in learning typewriting during a period of several 
months. The study is based on exact mechanical records of 
the amount written (which is measured to the minute) and 
upon other observations recorded by the subjects and the 
experimenter. The progress of the learners is shown by 
curves similar to those described for the Bryan and Harter 
investigation. In describing the curves, Book makes the 
following summary statement : 

(i) The curves belong to the usual type, that is, they rise rapidly 
at first [indicating rapid improvement] and then more and more 
slowly as an expert skill is approached. (2) There are as usual 
marked fluctuations in efliciency from minute to minute and day 
to day, , . . (3) All of the regular learning curves show a number 
of short, irregular periods of arrest — '' breathing places," in their 
upward movement, [indicating little or no increase in efficiency 
and] lasting, in our experiment, from five to eight days. (4) Two of 



PRACTICE OR DRILL 147 

the regular learning curves and all curves for the practice-sentence 
writing, show one or more longer periods of arrest — actual plateaus 
where no improvement is made for a period of from thirty-two to 
forty-eight days. (12 : 167) 

Neither of these investigations measures directly the rela- 
tive efficiency of various methods of instruction in modify- 
ing the progress made by students, but the investigator in 
each case draws certain pedagogical conclusions which will be 
referred to later in the chapter. 

Determining most econotnical methods of memorising. — 
Experiments upon memorizing furnish another possible source 
for evidence concerning the most effective and economical 
methods to be used in connection with certain forms of prac- 
tice and drill. In this field the work of a German investigator 
named Ebbinghaus has become classic. His monograph on 
memory was published in 1885 and has recently been repub- 
lished in English (15). Ebbinghaus experimented with a 
new type of materials, namely, nonsense syllables {gub, HI, 
los, mox, fas, etc.), and determined a great many facts con- 
cerning the phenomena of memorizing. His work has been 
followed by a large number of other investigators, whose results 
are summarized and discussed at length by E. Meumann in his 
''Psychology of Learning" (191 3), pp. 139-364, and E. L. 
Thorndike in his ''Educational Psychology," Vol. II (1913). 

Aspects of economical learning to be discussed. — The 
factors which determine the most effective and economical 
methods of automatizing associations will be discussed under 
the following heads : (i) Influence of feelings of satisfaction 
and dissatisfaction. (2) Part played by zeal and concentration of 
attention. (3) Use of correct recall in memorizing. (4) Memo- 
rizing by wholes. (5) Avoiding waste of time on accessories. 
(6) Most favorable distribution' of periods of practice. 

1. Influence of feelings of satisfaction and dissatisfaction 
is important. — The first of the factors that contribute to 
economy and effectiveness of practice which we shall consider, 



148 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

is the possibility of connecting feelings of satisfaction with 
successful practice and feelings of dissatisfaction with unsuc- 
cessful efforts. In general, responses or reactions which bring 
satisfaction or seem to be successful tend to be repeated, while 
other responses are gradually eliminated. As a rule, the greater 
the feeling of annoyance connected with an unsuccessful act, 
the less likely it is to be repeated. Hence Kirkpatrick says : 

It should be noted that habits are not formed merely because 
of performing and repeating an act in a certain way. Whether the 
tendency to repeat the act shall be greater or less is determined by 
the results of the act. If the results are favorable, the tendency to 
repeat the act is increased ; but if the results are unfavorable, the 
act is either performed with less vigor or is replaced by some other 
act. When a cat jumps on a table and gets some food, the tendency 
to repeat that act is increased because of the favorable result ; but 
if she performs the same movement of jumping on the table and 
gets a blow on the head, the tendency to jump on the table is 
decreased. (5 : 113) 

Pleasant feelings facilitate progress in typewriting. — 
Book, who made very elaborate records of his subjects' feel- 
ings and correlated these with the records of their efficiency 
in typewriting, makes the following statement in discussing 
',' the retroactive effects of pleasant and unpleasant feelings 
upon the learner's ability to do and improve." 

Pleasant feelings had undeniably, in our experiments, a stimu- 
lating and helpful effect upon every part of the work ; unpleasant 
feelings, a depressing, retarding effect. . . . Success brings pleasure, 
and the pleasure spurs the learner on to greater effort and more 
successful work. An unpleasant feeling tends to interrupt the 
natural, easy, and correct movement of attention by taking forcible 
possession of consciousness and dominating it. Instead of con- 
sciousness being focused on the details of the work, it is filled 
with unpleasant feelings, which not only take attendon off the 
details of the work but create a "set " of mind unfavorable for 
the work. (12: 152) 



PRACTICE OR DRILL 149 

2. Zeal and concentration of attention make practice effec- 
tive. — Closely related to the influence of feelings of satis- 
faction and dissatisfaction discussed above is the influence 
of zeal and concentration of attention upon the efficiency of 
practice or drill. Book's experiments upon typewriting fur- 
nish us with the best evidence on this point. As noted in 
the brief quotation given above on page 146, the curves of 
learning for his subjects showed two types of periods during 
which there was little or no advance in efficiency. There 
were the short '' breathing places " of a few days in length 
and the long plateaus varying from thirty-two to forty-eight 
days. Book explains the appearance of these periods of ar- 
rest largely on the basis of lack of attention and interest. 
His evidence for this position is scattered throughout his 
discussion ; hence it is difficult to quote it. The following 
paragraph is a typical generalization. 

At the critical stages [plateaus] where a natural and marked de- 
crease in spontaneous attention and effort occurred, no improve- 
ment was made. The learner was caught by the law of habit and 
was content to use old methods of writing when he should have 
been forging ahead inventing new and better ones. (12 : 130) 

Explanation of lapses in attention at some stages in 
learning. — As an explanation of the fact that, in his ex- 
periments, periods of no improvement were periods of little 
attention to the work, Book offers the following statement: 

In the early stages of learning, where many elementary associ- 
ations were in their first stages of development, and where, conse- 
quently, many short cuts in method were possible and easy to make, 
no lapses in attention and effort occurred. The associations were 
in their first stages of development, where improvement was rapid 
and easy. . . . The strong incentives required for keeping atten- 
tion focused on the work and forging ahead were furnished by 
the rapid progress and success. 

With the continuation of practice and gain in skill all this is 
changed. The elementary habits get further along in the course of 



ISO TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

their development, and, as attention naturally tends to drift away 
from every association or detail of the work as it becomes automatic, 
these associations soon lose their drawing power for it. . . . This 
fact, then, that attention tends naturally to drift away from every 
activity or special association as it becomes automatic, and drifts 
away from the work as a whole as progress becomes slow, is re- 
sponsible for these longer lapses in spontaneous attention and 
effort. . . . The learner at these critical stages has need for in- 
centives that make their appeal to spontaneous attention or natural 
interest. (12: 145-146) 

Would steady , intense interest avoid plateaus in learning? 
— Plateaus, or places of no improvement, appear so commonly 
in curves of learning that it has sometimes been assumed 
that they constitute a necessary stage in acquiring skill in 
any complex performance. Book takes exception to this 
point of view, as far as learning typewriting is concerned, 
and maintains that if the necessary zeal and concentration 
of attention could prevail throughout the learning, the criti- 
cal stages would be passed quickly without the development 
of plateaus. As evidence for this view he cites the 

fact that some of [his] learners did of themselves successfully over- 
come the difficidties eticountered at some of the critical stages in learn- 
ing to use the typewriter, and the further well-known fact that in 
learning such complicated things as playing the piano or learning 
a foreign language many learners successfully conquer the diffi- 
culties presented by every critical stage and thus eliminate the 
plateaus. (12: 160-161) 

Interest and ejfective drill not opposites. — These extended 
quotations have been made from Book's study because it 
furnishes one of the best measured investigations of the 
importance of interest and zeal in learning. Ever since 
the time of Locke (1632-1704) and Rousseau (17 12-1778) 
there have been strong arguments advanced in favor of in- 
terest as a factor in making learning more economical and 
effective. Although these arguments have been accepted by 



PRACTICE OR DRILL 15 i 

many educators, there are still many who think that school 
work should be characterized by ''arbitrary memorization, 
drill, and habituation with little appeal to interest or under- 
standing." 

The alignment of interest and zeal among the chief aids 
or factors in effective drill stands in very sharp contrast with 
the two extreme positions concerning these aspects of school 
work. At one extreme we find the ultraconservative educators, 
who insist on drill as almost the beginning and end of in- 
struction, but rule out interest. At the opposite extreme we 
find the ultraidealists, or radicals, who have no use for drill, 
but exalt interest. Neither theory is satisfactory in school 
practice, and Book's study shows why. Drill without interest 
is uneconomical ; hence our old-time schools succeeded in 
accomplishing little with their methods of dreary grinding. 
On the other hand, drill is necessary — indeed, very many 
periods of drill — in order to make automatic some of the 
complicated forms of human behavior which are necessary 
for efficiency ; but it need not and should not be divorced 
from interest. 

- Skilled teacher should provide interest at critical stages. — 
The pedagogical conclusions from this phase of his study are 
summarized by Book as follows : 

The critical stages are, in all probability, a stern reality in all 
forms of complex learning, but our facts seem to warrant the 
general statement that a skilled and sympathetic teacher — one who 
knows what habits are to be formed in the learning he is to direct, 
and who therefore knows where the critical stages appear — might 
so guide his learners that their attention would be kept properly 
applied to the details of the work. , . . He might also provide 
such emotional helps and artificial stimuli, by arousing an interest 
in the higher aspects of the subject, as would fully compensate for 
the natural lapses in interest and effort at the critical stages. If 
the learner's interest and effort can be kept from lagging and kept 
properly directed, there will be no plateaus. (12 : 161) 



152 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

Intense effort based on spontaneotis interest is helpfnl. — 
Up to this point our discussion of Book's results has been 
concerned largely with the negative aspects, namely, that 
improvement was not made during periods of lack of atten- 
tion or interest. On the positive side he found that rapid 
improvement was the result of intense effort. This effort, 
however, was not of the kind associated with a '' dull heave 
of the will," but was the kind of effort that accompanies in- 
tense interest. In fact. Book gives specific evidence to show 
that a general vague effort without spontaneous interest in 
the work itself, and without concentration of attention upon 
the processes to be mastered, was uneconomical, inasmuch 
as it did not bring about improvement. 

The importance of properly inspired and directed effort in 
bringing about improvement through practice was also em- 
phasized by Bryan and Harter in their study of telegraphy. 
They called attention to the fact that men whose ability to 
receive telegraphic messages had been at a dead level for 
years often rose to a higher level when forced to do so in 
order to secure or hold a higher position requiring greater 
speed. These men had the capacity for the higher achieve- 
ment, and the sthmdus of position aroused in them an 
interest which led to the effort and coitcentration of atten- 
tio7i that brought abont the improvement. 

Examples of opportunities for zeal and concentration in 
class drills. — The conclusions of Book relative to the impor- 
tance of attention and interest in connection with practice 
were derived from a study of a very complex system of 
motor and mental associations. It is fair to assume, however, 
that the same general principles would apply in the purpo- 
sive memorizing or automatizing of more purely mental as- 
sociations, such as learning vocabularies or poems or lists 
of formulae. These principles of attention are applied in the 
elementary grades by providing that the drills on words in 
reading, and the spelling and arithmetic drills, should proceed 



PRACTICE OR DRILL 153 

with snap, zest, and interest. It is equally important that the 
same spirit should prevail in high-school class work in drills 
on vocabularies, in rapid oral work in algebra, and possibly 
in drills on fundamental facts to be learned in history and 
other content subjects. 

As evidence of the superior effectiveness of practice which 
is associated with interest and zeal for improvement in one 
of the formal school processes, namely, the addition of num- 
bers, Thorndike compared the amounts of improvement made 
by two groups of subjects. The first group had been adding 
under varying conditions, to determine the influence of hunger 
or rest or drugs or the length of the practice periods ; the 
second group had been carrying on practice experiments in 
adding, to see how much they could improve their ability in add- 
ing. The second group, who were especially interested in 
improving, actually did make improvements that were two or 
three times as great as the gross gains made by the first group. 
In summarizing his discussion of the data, Thorndike says : 

On the whole, though the interpretation of all of these facts is 
somewhat uncertain, I cannot but believe that they testify to the 
very great potency of interest, whereby the added zeal and satis- 
faction at success which come from adding for improvement pri- 
marily, rather than simply to provide an investigator with material on 
hunger or pause-length, increase the rate of gain notably. (9 : 225) 

3. Correct recall in memorizing involves concentration of 
attention and saves time on parts learned. — In memorizing, 
one device to secure concentration of attention during the 
process is the use of the method of correct recall. This 
means that the student, instead of keeping his eyes fixed on 
the page during each repetition, should begin to look off as 
soon as it is possible to recall correctly what he has read or 
what is to come. At first this may be possible with mere 
snatches of the context, but gradually the parts that can be 
correctly recalled will become longer and longer, so that 



154 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

eventually only occasional glances at the page will be neces- 
sary to get one's bearings or to get some of the more diffi- 
cult parts. At all stages, however, the student should be 
careful to avoid incorrect recall as far as possible, for such 
recall tends to establish incorrect associations which will in- 
terfere with the correct ones that the student is trying to 
make automatic. 

The active character of the process of recall tends to hold 
the attention much better than it is held by mere repetition 
in the form of rereading. The latter process tends to become 
a mere passive, mechanical operation, with the result that 
attention wanders to other matters. 

Another advantage of the method of recall is that it in- 
forms the student concerning the progress that has been 
made in the learning; that is, it lets him know what parts 
are learned for the time being and what parts are not. If the 
parts that are not learned present certain special difficulties, 
they may then be attentively examined to discover the nature 
of the difficulties or to clear up some of the connections in 
the context. 

For a discussion of the experimental evidence on the value 
of the method of recall, see Ladd and Woodworth (6) and 
Abbott (11). 

4. Memorizing by wholes better than by parts. — Con- 
siderable experimental work has been done by psychologists 
to determine which is better, to break up material that is to 
be memorized into small parts, each of which is to be mem- 
orized separately, or to repeat the whole selection clear 
through every time. In general, the evidence indicates that 
the latter, or ''whole," method is more economical than the 
former, or ''part," method. It must be kept in mind, how- 
ever, that nearly all the experimentation has been upon ver- 
batim, or rote, memorizing. Hence it is to be assumed that 
the correct connections, or associations, have been started be- 
fore the drill or memorizing or automatizing begins. Thus, 



PRACTICE OR DRILL 155 

in memorizing a poem or a speech care should be taken to 
make sure that the ideas are clear before the process of ver- 
batim memorizing begins. Moreover, if special difficulties 
occur with certain sections, as suggested above in the discus- 
sion of recall, there is probably justification for stopping to give 
these especial attention ; but in general the repetitions should 
be of the whole selection up to a certain limit which has not 
been definitely determined. A summary of the investigations 
by German experimenters is given by Meumann. (7 : 233-255) 
The longer the selection the g7^eater the ecofioniy. — One 
of the best-known American investigations of the relative 
efficiency of the whole and part methods is one by W. H. 
Pyle and J. C. Snyder which is reported in the Journal 
of Educational Psychology (191 1). The summary of the 
article reads as follows : 

The question as to whether it is more economical, in committing 
to memory, to learn connected sense material by parts or to learn 
it as a whole is here extended to longer selections than have been 
considered by previous investigators. Experiments occupying some 
six months, though mainly restricted to a single observer, show 
that whether five lines or two hundred forty lines [approximately 
six pages] of poetry are memorized, learning by wholes is, without 
any exception, more economical than learning by parts, and that 
the relative saving is much greater in the case of long selections 
that require more than a single sitting [to memorize them]. Cor- 
roborative results were obtained from tests on school children. 
(20: 133-142) 

The material used in this experiment consisted of se- 
lections from Longfellow's translation of Dante's '' Divine 
Comedy." The method used in memorizing was to read the 
poetry over aloud at an even, natural rate. In learning units 
of from twenty to fifty lines in length there was a saving of 
r I per cent by the whole method, if measured either by the 
number of repetitions or by the time required. In learning 
longer units there was a saving of 20 per cent. 



156 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

Whole method siLperior even zvith children. — The possi- 
bility of taking advantage of the superiority of the whole 
method with children is discussed by Meumann in the 
following words : 

When significant material is learned, the whole procedure proves 
to be almost as advantageous for children as for adults, as is 
shown by the following data: Employing the part procedure, 
an eight-year-old boy learned a verse of Goethe's "Erlkonig" in 
seventeen repetitions ; in eleven repetitions when he employed the 
whole procedure. He learned another verse of the same poem 
in fifteen repetitions when it was divided into two sections, and 
immediately afterwards he learned the next verse as one section in 
ten repetitions. Approximately this same state of affairs was found 
with all school children. Subsequent relearning was easier when 
the stanzas had originally been learned by the whole procedure. 
This is true also for larger amounts of material so long as they 
do not fatigue the child. (7: 284-285) 

Whole method superior even for disconnected matter. — 
Concerning the memorizing of other types of material, 
Meumann says : 

But what is to be said of the learning of material which does 
not constitute a coherent whole, such as names, dates, the words 
of a foreign language, etc ? Experiments which have been con- 
ducted in my laboratory show that with this sort of material also 
it is more advantageous to employ the whole procedure than learn 
it in parts. (7 : 284-285) 

No time wasted on useless associations by whole m,ethod. — 
The explanations offered for the experimentally ascertained 
fact that memorizing by wholes is more economical than by 
parts are twofold. In the first place, in the case of connected 
material learned by the whole method, all of the associa- 
tions are formed as they will be used, whereas by the part 
method many associations are formed that will not be used 
and that will interfere with certain ones that will be used. 



PRACTICE OR DRILL 



157 



This abstract statement can be made clear by the following 
illustration. Suppose a child is memorizing two stanzas of 
a poem, for example, 

Stanza A 

1. Mary had a little lamb, 

2. His fleece was white as snow, 

3. And everywhere that Mary went 

4. The lamb was sure to go. 

Stanza B 

1. He followed her to school one day, 

2. Which was against the rule ; 

3. It made the children laugh and play 

4. To see a lamb at school. 

The connections made by the whole and part methods may be 
represented by the following diagrams : 



Whole method 
Stanza A 1 



Part method {that is, 
stanza by stanza) 




Stanza B t^ 



158 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

In the IV hole method the arrows indicate that the end of 
each Une becomes associated with the beginning of the next, 
which is as it should be. In Xh^part method, by which stanza 
A is repeated by itself until memorized, the last arrow indi- 
cates that the end of line 4 of stanza A becomes associated 
with the beginning of line i of the same stanza. This is an 
association that we do not care to build up. Hence time is 
wasted in building up an association which we do not want, 
and which, later on, will interfere with the association that we 
do want, namely, of the end of line 4 of stanza A with the 
beginning of line i of stanza B. 

Greater concentration of attention by the zvhole method. — 
The other factor in explaining the superiority of the whole 
method of memorizing over the part method is the fact that 
the whole method secures greater concentration of attention. 
If small parts are repeated until memorized, after one or two 
repetitions the repeating may continue mechanically, with rela- 
tively little attention to what is being repeated. Such repeti- 
tions without concentration of attention are relatively wasteful, 
as we noted above. On the other hand, if the whole is repeated 
every time, when the learner approaches each part it retains 
certain aspects of novelty or unfamiliarity which are helpful 
to spontaneous attention. Furthermore, students often remark 
that the whole method " seems harder " than the part method. 
This means that greater effort is put forth during the proc- 
ess of memorizing by the whole method, and effort, when 
associated with spontaneous attention, is also conducive to 
the economical automatizing, or fixing, of associations, as was 
noted above on page 152. 

5. Drill on real process ; do not waste time on accessories. 
Thumbing dictionaries. — An important point in economy in 
learning is to waste as little time as possible on activities which 
are not an essential part of the activity that is being practiced. 
The most striking neglect of this principle is found in study- 
ing a foreign language largely by means of the dictionary. In 



PRACTICE OR DRILL 159 

learning a foreign language the connections, or associations, 
that we desire to automatize are associations of foreign symbols 
with their meanings, and vice versa. From the standpoint of 
economy in learning, the more quickly the association can be 
started the better; but when the student meets new words in 
his reading and has to look up their meaning in a dictionary, 
a large part of the time is spent before the association which 
we desire to build 7 cp is even started. Moreover, having found 
the English equivalent, he notes it for a moment and starts 
to search for the next word to be looked up. Hence, a large 
part of his time is spent on an accessory process, namely, 
thumbing the dictionary, while the real process of concentrated 
repetition of the association is slighted. 

Experiments on memorizing vocabularies dem^onstrate 
waste. — The significance of this waste of time becomes 
apparent when we consider the large vocabulary that can be 
learned in a very short time if the material for the associations 
is provided outright and does not have to be gathered by the 
student. Thus, Dearborn experimented upon memorizing 
vocabularies provided by students in the form of parallel 
columns of French words and English equivalents. In pre- 
senting the tabulated results, he says : 

Subject I, for example, learned fifty French words daily for 
twenty-one days. ... As a result of the practice over one thousand 
new words were learned, at least for the time being, in less than 
six and one-half hours. The ordinary vocabulary, with the exception 
of paradigms and declensions, usually learned in a semester's work 
in university classes is, I am told, less than half of this. (14 : 386. 
Cf, 9 : 142—143) 

English equivalents and notes should be easily accessible. 
— If the translation method of teaching a foreign language 
is to be used, it is evident from such investigations that de- 
vices should be adopted to eliminate the waste of time in 
using a dictionary. If a systematic course covering at least 



i6o TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

two years is worked out, it would be quite practicable to devise 
a series of textbooks that would give the English equivalent 
of each foreign word in some convenient, accessible form the 
first four or five times the word occurred. In some books this 
has been done by interlinear translation. If there is objection 
to this, the new vocabulary for each page can be printed at 
the bottom of the page. Certainly the explanatory notes 
should be printed there. Think of the hours of time wasted 
by millions of students in finding the notes printed in the 
back of readers and editions of the classics ! It is far better 
that a few editors and printers should spend some time 
arranging material for economical use than that the time 
of students should be wasted. 

Flash cards save fniich thne 171 drilling. — Another ex- 
ample of the possibility of avoiding waste of time on accesso- 
ries is the use of '' flash cards " for various forms of drill. In 
the elementary school this practice is very common in the 
work in arithmetic and reading. Thousands of arithmetical 
combinations are arranged on cards and '' flashed " by the 
teacher before the class one at a time and very rapidly. When 
a pupil is called upon, he is expected to give the answer im- 
mediately. The same method could be used for rapid oral 
drill on many of the processes in algebra. It is being used 
for vocabulary drills in Latin in several places. By use of 
such a device practically all of the class are doing alert, rapid 
mathematical or linguistic thinking during the whole period 
of drill. No time is wasted in getting the associations or 
problems before their attention, and every member must be 
alert in expectation of being called on. Additional stimulus 
to attention is commonly provided by introducing the game 
spirit and recording the time taken to run through a given 
set of cards. Groups of pupils at certain ages become in- 
tensely interested in improving their own records or beating 
the records of other groups and succeed in accomplishing 
astonishing results in a short time. 



PRACTICE OR DRILL 



i6i 



6. What is the best distribution and length of practice 
periods ? Writing German script. — In order to get some 
evidence concerning the best distribution of time for eco- 
nomical practice or drill, Leuba and Hyde carried on an ex- 
periment with some twenty-six subjects who were learning to 
write German script. (17: 351-369.) The practice periods 
were twenty minutes long. Six subjects practiced tzvo periods 
a day, namely, at 8.40 a.m. and 1.30 p.m. Seven practiced 
one period a day, at 1.40 p.m. Six practiced one period every 
other day. Seven practiced one period every third day. 

The following table shows the relative achievements after 
an equal number of periods of practice : 

Average Number of Letters written in Twenty Minutes 



Twice-a-Day 
Subjects 



Once-a-Day 
Subjects 



Every-Other- 
Day Subjects 



Every-Third- 
Day Subjects 



After 5 practices 
After 10 practices 
After 1 5 practices 



625 

865 

1015 



825 

1115 

1540 



780 
1175 



750 
985 



It is quite evident from this table that the once-a-day sub- 
jects achieved much more after a given number of periods of 
practice than did the twice-a-day subjects. 

Learning to tise new alphabets. — Another experiment to 
determine the most economical amount of time to spend each 
day in practice was described by Pyle in the Journal of Edic- 
cational Psychology (191 3). The practice material consisted 
of arbitrary new alphabets of twenty-six characters each. Prac- 
tice with a given alphabet consisted in translating ordinary 
printed material into it. This is known by psychologists as 
a siLbstit2Ltion test. In summing up the results from several 
subjects who carried on such practice with varying amounts 
of time per day, Pyle says : 

On the whole our experiments warrant some such conclusion as 
the following : In habit formation [in the case of simple substitution 



i62 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

experiments] an adult can practice profitably for something like 
thirty minutes daily. The length of time for practice doubtless 
varies with individuals and with the stage of fixation of the habit. 
If practice is extended beyond thirty minutes, there may be some 
return for the extra time, but it is relatively small. It is quite prob- 
able that in the later stages of habituation the length of practice 
period could be shortened and the interval lengthened with practi- 
cally as much return. A second practice on the same day is not 
quite as beneficial as the first practice. After a few practices, further 
practice on the same day is useless. (19 : 158. Cf., however, 19 a) 

Distributed repetitions best in memorizing. — In the inves- 
tigation of memorizing it has also been found that distributed 
repetitions are more economical than continuous repetitions. 
Thus, Ebbinghaus found that when the repetitions of series 
of nonsense syllables were distributed over three days, each 
series required thirty-eight repetitions, while sixty-eight repeti- 
tions were necessary for a series when they were all performed 
at a single sitting. (7 : 265.) Another German investigator 
named Jost 

devoted thirty repetitions without pause to the learning of a series 
of syllables ; in another case he employed ten repetitions on each 
of three successive days. In both cases he tested accuracy of 
retention twenty-four hours after the repetitions had been com- 
pleted. He found that the syllables which had been learned with 
distributed repetitions were retained better than those which had 
been learned with the same number of accumulated repetitions. 
Jost also attempted to determine how far the distribution of repe- 
titions may be carried without giving rise to a deleterious result. 
He found that when the material to be learned is of large mass, 
the most extensive distribution is the most advantageous, both as 
to rapidity of learning and permanence of retention. (7 : 266) 

Lectttre notes and readings should be reviewed soon after 
first repetition; later it increasing intervals. — Lyon, who 
has specialized upon the study of economy in memorizing, 
gives the following practical conclusion : 



PRACTICE OR DRILL 163 

With reference to the problem of the most favorable distribution 
of single readings ... I would say that the^most general state- 
ment that can be made, taking all materials and methods of pres- 
entation into consideration, is that the most economical method is 
to distribute the readings over a rather lengthy period, the inter- 
vals between the readings being in arithmetical proportion. For 
example, with one individual, in memorizing a poem of twenty stanzas, 
the highest retentiveness was obtained by distributing the readings 
as follows : two hours, eight hours, one day, two days, four days, 
eight days, sixteen days, thirty-two days, etc. The practical bearing 
of the results obtained on education in general is that when asso- 
ciations have once been formed, they should be recalled before an 
interval so long has elapsed that the original associations have lost 
their color and cannot be recalled in the same shape, time, and 
order. In general it was found that the most economical method 
for keeping material once memorized from disappearing was to 
review the material whenever it started to fade. Here also the 
intervals were found' to be, roughly speaking, in arithmetical pro- 
portion. For similar reasons the student is advised to review his 
lecture notes shortly after taking them, and, if possible, to review 
them again the evening of the same day. Then the lapse of a week 
or two does not make nearly so much difference. When once he 
has forgotten so much that the various associations originally made 
have vanished, a considerable portion of the material is irretrievably 
lost (18: 161) 

The results of the experiments by Leuba, Pyle, Ebbinghaus, 
Jost, and Lyon upon distributed practice versus more continu- 
ous practice should not be accepted as final and as furnishing 
entirely reliable guides for school programs without further 
critical study of the results of other experimenters. Such a 
critical comparison is furnished by Thorndike in his ''.Psy- 
chology of Learning " (9 : 193-206), but the results are often 
so contradictory that the following tentative statement is the 
only general conclusion that he provides : 

The experimental results obtained justify in a rough way the 
avoidance of very long practice periods and of very short intervals. 



1 64 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

They seem to show, on the other hand, that much longer practice 
periods than are customary in the common schools are probably 
entirely allowable, and that much shorter intervals are allowable 
than those customary between the first learning and successive 
reviews in schools. (9 : 194) • 

On the whole, however, so very few of the infinite number of 
ways in which any given total time can be distributed have been 
tested for even substitution tests and addition, that psychology 
has little yet to offer in advance of the experience of sagacious 
workers. (9 : 206) 

Empirical discussion of practice upon the piano. — There 
is a large body of empirical or practical discussion of the prin- 
ciples of effective and economical practice. To a certain extent 
the conclusions reached by practical teachers are in harmony 
with the results of experimental investigations. As an exer- 
cise in further thinking about the results presented up to this 
point in the chapter, students may examine and evaluate 
the suggestions for practice contained in the following quota- 
tion from Josef Hofmann's book entitled '' Piano Playing," 
from which other excerpts have been quoted above on pages 
111-112. Under the head of General Rules, Hofmann 
writes as follows : 

Now^ as to Practice. Let me suggest that you never practice 
more than an hour, or at the most two hours, at a stretch, accord- 
ing to your condition and strength. Then go out and take a walk 
and think no more of music. This method of mental unhitching, 
so to speak, is absolutely necessary in order that the newly acquired 
results of your work may, unconsciously to yourself, mature in 
your mind and get, as it were, into your flesh and blood. (Com- 
pare Thorndike 9 : 300-33 1) 

After every half hour make a pause until you feel rested. Five 
minutes will often be sufficient. 

A valuable little hint /^^r^, if you will allow me : Watch well that 
you actually hear every tone you mean to produce. Every missing 
tone will mean a blotch upon your photographic plate in the brain. 
Each note must be not mentally but physically heard, and to this 



PRACTICE OR DRILL 165 

imperative requirement your speed must ever subordinate itself. 
It is not at all necessary to practice loudly in order to foster the 
permanence of impressions. Rather let an inward tension take the 
place of external force. It will engage, sympathetically, your hearing 
just as well. 

With regard to finger exercises . Do not let them be too frequent 
or too long — at the most a half hour a day. A half hour daily, 
kept up for a year, is enough for anyone to learn to play one's 
exercises. 

A rule for memory exercises. If you wish to strengthen the recep- 
tivity and retentiveness of your memory, you will find the following 
plan practical : Start with a short piece. Analyze the form and 
manner of its texture. Play the piece a number of times very 
exactly, with the music before you. Then stop playing for several 
hours and try to trace the course of ideas mentally in the piece. 
Try to hear the piece inwardly. If you have retained some parts, 
refill the missing places by repeated reading of the piece, away 
from the piano. When next you go to the piano (after several 
hours, remember), try to play the piece. Should you still get 
" stuck " at a certain place, take the sheet music, but play only that 
place (several times, if necessary), and then begin the piece over 
again, as a test if you have better luck this time with those elusive 
places. If you still fail, resume your silent reading of the piece 
away from the piano. Under no circumstances skip the unsafe 
place for the time being and proceed with the rest of the piece. 
By such forcing of the memory you lose the logical development 
of your piece, tangle up your memory, and injure its receptivity. 

With regard to technical work: Play good compositions and 
construe out of them your own technical exercises. In nearly every 
piece you play you will find a place or two of which your conscience 
tells you that they are not up to your own wishes — that they can 
be improved upon either from the rhythmical, dynamical, or pre- 
cisional point of view. Give these places the preference for a while, 
but do not fail to play from time to time again the whole piece, in 
order to put the erstwhile defective and now repaired part into 
proper relation to its context. Remember that a difficult part may 
" go " pretty well when severed from its context and yet fail utterly 
when attempted in its proper place. 



i66 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

As to the mimber of pieces : The larger the number of good 
compositions you are able to play in a finished manner, the better 
grow your opportunities to develop your versatility of style ; for 
in almost every good composition you will find some traits, peculiar 
to itself only, which demand an equally special treatment. To keep 
as many pieces as possible in your memory and in good technical 
condition, play them a few times each week. Do not play them, 
however, in consecutive repetitions. Take one after the other. 
After the last piece is played, the first one will appear fresh again 
to your mind. This process I have tested and found very helpful 
in maintaining a large repertory. (4 : 19-27) 

Conclusion of discussion of automatizing associations. — 

This will include the third of the chapters which deal pri- 
marily with processes of association in teaching. Of these, 
Chapter IV treated the problem of forming correct motor 
responses to situations ; Chapter V contained a discussion 
of the best methods of associating symbols and meanings. 
The present chapter has emphasized the most economical 
and effective methods of automatizing or making permanent 
various types of associations. A summary of the important 
factors in such economical automatizing is found at the be- 
ginning of this chapter. In the next chapter we shall take 
up the third type of learning which we are to consider, 
namely, reflective thinking. 



BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES 

General discussions of practice or drill, i. Bagley, W. C. The 
Educative Process. (The Macmillan Company, 1905.) Pp. 328-331. 
A very influential chapter. 

2. CoLViN, S. S. The Leanmig Process. (The Macmillan Com- 
pany, 191 1.) Pp. 40-46, 64-70, 159-178. Brief reliable summaries of 
experimental evidence. 

3. CoLViN, S. S. The Practical Results of Recent Studies in Educa- 
tional Psychology. School Review., May, 191 3. Vol. XXI, pp. 307-322. 

4. HoFMANN, Josef. Piano Playing. (Doubleday, Page & Company, 
1908.) Pp. 19-33. Very readable essays. 



PRACTICE OR DRILL 167 

5. KiRKPATRiCK, E. A. Genetic Psychology. (The Macmillan 
Company, 1909.) Pp. 111-140. General discussion of habit formation. 

6. Ladd, G. T., and Wood worth, R. S. Eleme7its of Physiological 
Psychology. (Charles Scribner's Sons, 191 1.) Pp. 572-582. Brief sum- 
mary and interpretation of experimental data. 

7. Meumann, E. The Psychology of Learning. (D. Appleton and 
Company, 1 91 3.) Pp. 231-364. Extended summary and interpretation 
of the experimental evidence by the leading contemporary German 
authority. 

8. Strayer, G. D. The Teaching Process (The Macmillan Com- 
pany, 1911.) Pp. 41-50. Good pedagogical discussion. 

9. Thorndike, E. L. The Psychology of Learjiing, being Vol. II 
of Educational Psychology. (Teachers College, 1913.) The standard 
critical summary in English of experimental investigations of practice. 
Should be studied by all instructors. Too difficult for undergraduates. 

ID. Watt, H. J. The Ecojtomy and Training of Memory. (Long- 
mans, Green & Co., 191 o.) An excellent little manual based on results 
in experimental psychology. 

Special experimental investigations. 11. Abbott, E. A. On the 
Analysis of the Factor of Recall in the Learnirig P?vcess. Psycho- 
logical Review Monograph Supplements., 19095 Vol. XI, pp. 159-177, 
Experimental justification of the use of recall. 

12. BooK,W. F. The Psychology of Skill. Bulletin A^o.jj.Vsycho- 
logical Series, No, i. (University of Montana publications, 1908.) Ex- 
tended report of elaborate experiments on practice in typewriting. 

13. Bryan, W. L., and Harter, N. Studies in the Physiology and 
Psychology of the Telegraphic Language. Psychological Review, 1897, 
Vol. IV, pp. 27-53, and 1899, Vol. VI, pp. 345-375. A widely quoted 
study. 

14. Dearborn, W. F. Experiments in learning, foiirnal of Edu- 
cational Psychology, 1 910, Vol. I, pp. 384-387. Experiment on memo- 
rizing vocabularies. 

15. Ebbinghaus, H. Memory. (Published 1885, translated 191 3, 
Teachers College, Columbia University.) The pioneer experimental 
investigation of memorizing. 

1 6. Lakenan, Mary E. The Whole and Part Methods of Memoriz- 
ing Poetry and Prose, fournal of Ediicational Psychology, iVpril, 191 3, 
Vol. IV, pp. 189-198. Verifies earlier work on poetry and includes work 
on prose to three hundred words. 

17. Leuba, J. H., and Hyde, W. An Experiment in Learning to 
make Hand Movements. PsycJiological Review, \o\. XII, pp. 351-369. 
Shows superiority of distributed practice in learning German script. 



l68 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

1 8. Lyon, D, O. Relation of Length of Material to Time taken for 
Learning and the Optimum Distribution of Time. Journal of Educa- 
tional Psychologv, 1 9135 Vol. V, pp. 155-163. 

19. Pyle, W, H. Economical Learning. Journal of Educational 
Psychology, March, 191 3, Vol. IV, pp. 148-158. Shows thirty minutes 
of practice a day is best with new alphabets. 

19^. Pyle, W. H. Concentrated Versus Distributed Practice. Jour- 
nal of Educational Psychology, May, 191 4, Vol. V, pp. 247-258. 
Experiments on typewriting show that distributed practice is better, but 
if one is in a hurry to acquire skill, the diminished returns from concen- 
trated practice are not prohibitive. 

20. Pyle, W. H., and Snyder, J. C. The most economical unit for 
committing to memory. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1911. 
Vol. II, pp. 133-142. $hows superiority of whole unit up to two hun- 
dred forty lines of poetry. 

21. RuGER, H. A. The Psychology of Efficiency. (The Science 
Press, New York, 1910.) Experiments on solving puzzles. 

22. Swift, E. J. Mind in the Making. (Charles Scribner's Sons, 
1908.) Pp. 169-218. Reports experiments on tossing balls, on type- 
writing, and on learning Russian. 

23. Thorndike, E. L. The Curve of Work. Psychological Review, 
May, 1 91 2, Vol. XIX, pp. 165-194. Technical criticism of the interpre- 
tations of mixed fatigue and practice effects. 



i 



CHAPTER IX 

REFLECTIVE THINKING 

Problem-Solving. Acquiring Abstract and 
General Meanings 

Main points of the chapter. — i . The third type of learning that 
is to be considered is reflective thinking. 

2. In the form of problem-solving, reflective thinking plays a 
large part in many school subjects and in social life. 

3. The social sciences furnish some of the best opportunities 
for problem-solving. 

4. A study of the nature of problem-solving shows that it 
involves the evaluation of many suggestions, of which many may 
not be useful. Hence the process often necessarily consumes 
considerable time. 

5. The teacher should assist students (a) to define the problem 
carefully and to keep it clearly in mind ; (b) to be fertile in sugges- 
tion by analyzing the problem and formulating definite hypotheses 
or recalling general principles that may apply ; (c) to evaluate criti- 
cally each suggestion presented and to verify those which are tenta- 
tively accepted ; and (d) to keep the thinking carefully organized by 
taking stock of progress made and by using methods of tabulation 
and graphic representation. 

6. The following types of opportunities for reasoning are pre- 
sented to students : (a) to reason independently ; (J?) to participate 
in group reasoning ; {c) to follow and supplement the teacher's 
reasoning ; (d) to follow a course of reasoning expressed in a book. 
All of these are profitable for bright students but not equally so 
for poor ones. 

7. Acquiring abstract and general meanings is prominent in 
many subjects, especially those possessing a technical terminology, 
and is an important aspect of reflective thinking. 

169 



I/O TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

8. The best starting point for teaching a new abstraction is a 
familiar, personal experience. Many new abstract meanings may 
be derived from experiences already possessed by students. 

9. For poor or mediocre students active analytical thought is 
the best basis for learning new abstractions. Superior students 
may learn them easily from expository teaching. 

10. For many technical terms an exact definition is necessary. 
This should be reached by the students by a continuous process 
of summarizing or generalizing as the thinking proceeds. 

1 1 . General ideas aid in solving personal and social problems 
(a) by enabling one to apply to a particular case the method of 
treatment appropriate to the whole class, and (b) by opening up 
possibilities of inferring many practical corollaries which may 
necessarily follow from the general fact. 

Problem-solving and acquiring abstract and general mean- 
ings. — In preceding chapters we considered two types of 
learning, namely, acquiring motor skill and associating sym- 
bols and meanings. The third type, which we shall take up 
in this chapter, is reflective thinking. Two aspects will be 
considered. The first is problem-solving. It involves not 
simply the recalling of ideas in old-established connections, 
but the searching for and testing of means of dealing with 
new and perplexing situations. The second aspect, which 
we shall consider in the second section of the chapter, is the 
acquiring of clearly defined abstract and general meanings, 
such as acceleration, wealth, justice, etc. 

SECTION I. PROBLEM-SOLVING 

May be required in other subjects than mathematics and 
natural science. — -This type of learning may be present in 
most school subjects but is especially prominent in a few as 
subjects are ordinarily taught. Evidently mathematics and 
natural science provide for problem-solving. The grammati- 
cal work in a foreign language does this also, since it is 
practically the study of the science of language. Because 



REFLECTIVE THINKING i/l 

these subjects have provided for reflective thinking in the 
past more than other subjects have, it has been claimed that 
they offer superior opportunities for training in this kind of 
learning ; but it is easy to see that opportunities for solving 
problems need not be confined to these subjects. For ex- 
ample, historical and social studies may be taught so as to 
require much reflective thinking by students. In fact, studies 
of human nature and society (psychology, ethics, sociology, 
civics, economics, education) lend themselves very easily to 
this type of treatment. This is due to the fact that most 
students already have the raw material, the elements of these 
studies, within their own lives, and have had considerable 
experience in solving problems of human nature. 

Socrates demonstrated possibilities in social sciences. — 
The possibilities of reflective thinking in connection with 
studies of human nature and society are illustrated by the 
teaching done by Socrates (469-399 b.c), the founder of 
the so-called but little understood Socratic method. Socrates 
in his discussions dealt largely with problems of the social 
sciences. Upon meeting the youth of Athens, he quizzed 
them about their experiences, raised questions which per- 
plexed them, and then guided them through a maze of 
further perplexities to some goal which he had in mind. 
To be sure, most of the reflective thinking was done by 
Socrates, and the audience simply served to furnish points 
of departure or foils for his discussions, but the latter 
furnish clear evidence of the possibilities of instruction in- 
volving reflective thinking in connection with social studies. 

Problem-solving methods used in an econotnics textbook. — 
The possibilities of using a problem-solving method in school 
in the teaching of the social subjects are illustrated by the 
" Outlines of Economics developed in a Series of Prob- 
lems," prepared by members of the department of Political 
Economy of The University of Chicago (L. C. Marshall, 
C. W. Wright, and J. A. Field). In this book of some 



1/2 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

hundred fifty pages there is practically none of the ordinary 
descriptive or expository material found in most textbooks. 
Instead, the book consists almost wholly of carefully organized 
series of questions preceded by brief outlines of the main 
topics under consideration. The following quotation, which 
is given at some length in order to illustrate the method 
fully, is taken from pages 28-29 of the book. 

I. Specialization 

a) Specialization in Relation to Exchange. 

b) The Separation of Occupations. 

c) The Division of Labor. 

d) Territorial, or Geographical, Specialization. 

i. Grouping of Related Industries. 
ii. Grouping of Many Plants of the Same Industry. 

e) Factors Limiting the Degree of Specialization. 

i. The Nature of the Industry. 

ii. The Extent of the Market. (Note the relation of 

transportation to the extent of the market.) 
iii. Social Institutions, 
iv. Financial Organization. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Is any specialization of economic activity possible so long 
as every individual must supply all his needs independently ? For 
example, could the distinction between farmer and hunter, or be- 
tween hunter and fisherman, arise under such conditions ? 

2. Does the domestic specialization according to which the 
woman cooks and weaves while the man hunts or cultivates the 
soil depend on exchange ? 

3. Can you think of anyone to-day who engages in every kind 
of work necessary to produce the commodities which he uses .'* 

4. Why can more be produced by a given number of persons 
if each devotes himself to a special operation ? 

5. Do the advantages of specialization apply to the use of 
capital and land as well as to the employment of labor? 



REFLECTIVE THINKING 1 73 

6. Give examples from your own observation of (a) the 
division of labor ; (b) territorial grouping of related industries ; 
(c) territorial grouping of plants of the same industry. 

7. What were the motives that led to the specialization you 
have mentioned in answering (b) and (c) under question 6 ? 

8. Give concrete examples of cases where specialization is 
limited by the nature of the industry itself. 

9. Can specialization be carried as far in bicycle repair shops 
as in bicycle manufacturing ? Why or why not ? 

10. Give examples of specialized occupations which are made 
possible by the degree of exchange cooperation which exists 
within (a) small villages; (b) towns of 5000 inhabitants; (c) 
large cities. 

1 1 . Show specifically how specialization has depended on the 
widening of the market. 

12. Is it in general more true that widening markets have led 
to specialization or that the increased productivity of specialized 
industry has enlarged markets ? 

13. Nowadays one machine completes the process of pin- 
making, which in Adam Smith's day occupied ten men. Has 
there been an increase or a decrease in specialization ? 

14. What new forms of specialization and what enlargements 
of the market accompanied the transition from the handicraft 
system to the factory system ? 

15. Show how specialization of industry in respect to (a) prod- 
ucts and (b) location is related to the development of trans- 
portation. > 

16. Cite instances where social institutions affect the degree of 
specialization. 

17. How has the increasing economic freedom of women 
reacted upon specialization ? What further changes may be 
expected } 

18. Show the relation of financial organization to the extent of 
specialization. (17 : 28-29) 

These questions are supplemented by assigned readings. 
Problem-solving in history. — Opportunities for problem- 
solving are also found in the teaching of history. Thus, 



174 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

after stating that a few large, important topics should be 
chosen for intensive study in this subject, De Garmo says : 

Each of these gives rise to one or more problems proper, and 
usually to a number of subsidiary aims. For instance, in the case 
of the frontier the main problem before the class would be to de- 
termine the influence of the frontier in American history. About 
this problem will cluster the gathering of historical facts, the influ- 
ences that have a causal power, and the various channels through 
which these causes produce their diverse effects. In other words, 
the main problem will break up into a number of subsidiary ones, 
as, for example. What influence had the trapper's frontier upon 
that of the rancher? What modifying influences had the settle- 
ments immediately beyond the '^ fall line " upon those below it ? 
How did the frontier regions control legislation for internal im- 
provements ? for the distribution of the public domain ? for protec- 
tion to new industries, etc. ? (4 : 82) 

Organized exercises for reasoning in history. — A scheme 
for organizing the teaching of history so as to provide just 
as definite exercises in reflective thinking as are provided in 
mathematics or science is described by M. W. Keatinge, an 
English writer, in a book entitled '' Studies in the Teaching 
of History." The exercises are to be based upon the exami- 
nation and study, by the pupils, of selected passages from 
documents in English history. In discussing his plan for the 
exercises, Keatinge says : 

Our subject, then, must be reduced to problem form, and our 
pupils must be confronted with documents and forced to exercise 
their minds upon them. A word of explanation is here needed. It 
is possible and suitable to derive a portion of our method from the 
scientific processes of the historian, but it must not be imagined 
that the aim is to convert schoolboys into historians. The boy is 
no more placed in the position of the historian, who weighs and 
estimates his raw material, than the boy in the laboratory who is 
being put through a course of practical work is . . . being placed 
in the position of the scientific discoverer. Neither does the pupil, 



REFLECTIVE THINKING 175 

as the American votaries of the source method would have it, 
construct his own history and write his own textbook. What really 
takes place is widely different. The boy is given problems and 
exercises devised so that they suit his strength and cultivate cer- 
tain activities and powers, and these exercises are of a highly arti- 
ficial kind. They are as artificial in their relation to historical 
method as the exercises and proofs in the school algebra are to 
the mathematics of the engineer, the actuary, and the advanced 
mathematician. Scientific historical method shows the schoolmaster 
the way ; his instinct and his experience direct him to the details 
of practice. (15 : 38) 

The exercises provided may be readily graded from the 
standpoint of difficulty. For example, an easy one occurs in 
case the class is studying the reign of Richard II and the 
Peasants' Revolt but has not been introduced to any of the 
sources. They are given an extract from Froissart, without 
any information as to its authorship. The exercise and its 
possible answers are discussed by Keatinge as follows. The 
» italicized statements are quotations of evidence from the 
source in question. 

Exercise. From the internal evidence write down everything 
that can be gathered about the author. 

The points that a boy may reasonably be expected to get hold 
of are the following : 

1. The writer was contemporary. Fro77i the informatioJi I had 
at the time on the subject. 

2. He seems acquainted both with England and with Europe. 
It is customary in Eiigland as well as in several other countries. 

3. He appears to know the situation in England very well. 
For example., reference to Kent, Essex, Sussex, and Bedford. 

4. He seems to be on the side of the upper classes. The evil 
disposed [persons^ in these districts. 

5. But is at the same time sympathetic with the rebels. 

6. He may have been a priest with conservative tendencies. 
A. crazy priest, who for his absu7'd preaching. 



176 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

General inference — He was either an Englishman who had 
traveled abroad or a foreigner who had come to live in England. 
He may have been a man of humble birth, who therefore knew the 
views of the poorer classes, attached as a secretary to some noble 
house. He may also have been a priest. (15 : 41-42) 

For an example of a source book in history which uses the 
problem-solving method see number 14 in the bibliography 
at the end of this chapter. 

It is not necessary to quote examples from other subjects 
to show that problem-solving not only plays a large part in 
mathematics and science but may do so in all subjects that 
have any large intellectual content. These problems may vary, 
in length of time consumed, from a brief one in algebra, involv- 
ing a half-minute for a solution, to such as are taken up in 
debates, in connection with which students sometimes work 
for months, studying the problem, formulating it, searching 
for evidence, organizing their ideas, refuting arguments, etc. 

Problem-solving is an important activity in social life. — 
The importance of learning that involves reflective thinking 
is easily demonstrated. It is self-evident that the ability to 
deal with new and perplexing situations is an important ele- 
ment in practical efficiency. The conditions of life, both for 
society as a whole and for individuals, are continually chang- 
ing, and the discovery of new methods of thinking and behav- 
ing must keep pace. The relative importance of this type of 
learning varies, however, among individuals, when compared 
with learning which involves motor skill or the automatizing 
of manifold associations which are to be recalled and used 
over and over again in fairly fixed forms. In many vocations 
motor skill and thousands of habitual associations play a larger 
part than do the opportunities to solve problems or deal with 
perplexities by reflective thinking. To be sure, skill in reflec- 
tive thinking is a useful asset in any position, but there is danger 
of losing sight of the fact that other types of activity and other 
modes of learning are also important elements in efficiency. 



REFLECTIVE THINKING 177 

Variations froin great inventiojts to everyday domestic 
problems. — The practical inventor and the innovator in the 
work of applied science furnish striking examples of the social 
importance of reflective thought. With them rank the great 
originators of social reforms, the men and women who fur- 
nish the ideas that more mediocre thinkers copy and put 
into execution. From these great problem-solvers we may 
pass by gradual steps to common everyday men or women 
with their domestic and economic problems or perplexities, 
such as whether to feed the baby cow's milk or some pre- 
pared food ; whether to whip the youngster or to overlook his 
misdeeds ; whether to eat all the meat one desires or to be 
a vegetarian ; whether to let a cold run its course or to con- 
sult a physician ; whether to pay rent or buy a home in the 
building association, etc. Many persons whose vocational 
activities are highly routinized are confronted only by such 
problems as these. In the lives of all people, however, they 
play a very important part, and schools are beginning to realize 
this and to provide training that looks toward efficiency in 
dealing with the problems of common everyday life. 

Classification of everyday problems. — A systematic classi- 
fication of these everyday problems reveals the following types 
if we adopt the basis for classification used in Herbert Spencer's 
'' Education," in the chapter entitled What Knowledge is 
Most Worth .? 

I. Problems of health. — F'^or example : What shall I eat 
in order to secure the best physiological results .'' How shall 
I secure adequate ventilation under difficult and varying con- 
ditions } How shall I avoid certain common diseases, such as 
tuberculosis and sexual diseases, with their attendant dangers 1 
What steps, such as cold baths, antiseptic gargles, etc., shall 
I take to avoid common contagions, such as colds t What can 
I do in the way of first aids, first precautions, etc. in the 
case of sickness .^~ What is a reasonable scientific treat- 
ment of simple ailments as distinguished from superstitious 



1/8 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

traditional treatment ? How much exercise do I need and 
what opportunities can I take advantage of to secure it ? 

2. Problems of making a living. — For example: What 
are my capacities ; that is, for what am I fitted by nature ? 
What are the opportunities in various vocations ? What are 
my opportunities to secure training and how can I best take 
advantage of them ? How shall I secure a position ? What 
attitude shall I assume toward my work ? How keep on im- 
proving myself ? How keep in touch with advances in my 
vocation ? How devise improved methods of manufacturing, 
transporting, selling, recording, etc. ? 

3 . Domestic problems. — For example : Shall I get mar- 
ried ? If a man, can I support a family ? If a woman, can I 
keep house efficiently (including one thousand detailed prob- 
lems for reflective thought) ? Is my prospective '' better half " 
congenial ; healthy, especially free from tuberculosis and sex- 
ual diseases ; likely to be efficient and successful ? How can I 
best distribute the income for food, rent, clothes, recreation, 
etc. 1 What shall I feed the children } How discipline them ? 
How direct their play, reading, home education t How co- 
operate with the school 1 How save and invest money 1 
How much and what kind of insurance shall I carry } 

4. Social problems (in the narrow sense of the word). — 
For example : What friendships shall I cultivate } What 
clubs shall I belong to } Shall I play bridge or poker } Shall 
I gamble } Shall I attend church .? If so, what one and how 
often } To what extent and how shall I aid charitable enter- 
prises 1 Shall I vote t For what candidates } 

5 . Recreational problems. — For example : Have I time 
to read for pleasure 1 Shall I read what I like or read from 
'' high brow " motives } How much can I go to the theater } 
Shall I go simply to be amused or to be improved ? Shall I 
keep up my music } How shall I spend my vacation } 

These are typical problems of everyday life. It is in con- 
nection with such problems that most high-school students 



REFLECTIVE THINKING 179 

will do most of their reflective thinking after graduation. 
A few will continue their education and undertake scientific 
work in universities and continue it in after life, but only 
a very few. Most of the activities related to health, vocation, 
family, society at large, and recreation will be reduced to 
the plane of habit, and the school should endeavor to estab- 
lish as many useful habits along these lines as possible. But 
there will still remain many perplexities, of which those 
cited in the above classification are typical. 

May depetid on impulsive decision or reflective i^iqniry. — 
It is important to remember that these everyday problems 
may be disposed of by the most impulsive decision or may 
lead to the most careful kind of a reflective inquiry. The 
problem of caring for and feeding a baby illustrate these two 
possibilities. A mother may rely entirely on tradition, routine, 
and impulse or may devote several hours a week to a careful 
study of the diet which is best adapted to the child's special 
needs. The determination of the diet of adult persons and 
even of domestic animals offers similar opportunities for 
reflective thought and investigation. 

Planning a vacation illustrates solving personal problem. — 
A good example of a problem to which persons of moderate 
means devote considerable reflective thought is how and 
where to spend one's vacation. The problem is one of intense 
personal interest and commonly calls forth thoughtful con- 
sideration and prolonged investigation for its solution. The 
type of thinking and the methods of investigation used might 
well serve as models of one type of mental activity which it 
would be desirable to secure in the school. If students would 
study carefully the methods by which they solve this prob- 
lem or some other which makes a similar personal appeal, 
they would arrive at a fair understanding of the psychology 
of reflective thinking or reasoning, since reasoning may be 
defined as reflective or purposive thinking which solves or 
tries to solve problems. 



i8o TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

Nature of mental activity in problem-solving. — Assistance 
in understanding how students carry on reflective thinking or 
reasoning ought to be secured from textbooks on psychology, 
but unfortunately the accounts found in these are often con- 
fusing instead of helpful. This is partially due to the fact that 
writers have often failed to distinguish clearly between (a) the 
character of the thinking process as it goes on and (b) the 
qualities of the finished product of reflective thought after it 
is written out. The finished product of the thinking of a 
scientist, for example, does not represent the thinking which 
he has done, but merely the ideas which he cared to retain 
and express. Many of the psychological discussions are largely 
descriptions of what is found in the attenuated finished product, 
and leave out of account the rich thought-movement which 
has led up to the final result. 

Difference between process and final prodtict illustrated in 
Kepler. — The difference between the process of reflective 
thought and its finished product is well illustrated by the 
following account of the investigations made by Kepler 
(i 571-1630), the great astronomical genius. The account is 
quoted from William Whewell's '' History of the Inductive 
Sciences." 

Advances in knowledge are not commonly made without the 
previous exercise of some boldness and license in guessing. The 
discovery of new truths requires, undoubtedly, minds careful and 
scrupulous in examining what is suggested, but it requires, no less, 
such as are quick and fertile in suggesting. What is invention ex- 
cept the talent of rapidly calling before us many possibilities and 
selecting the appropriate one ? It is true that when we have rejected 
all the inadmissible suppositions, they are quickly forgotten by most 
persons, and few think it necessary to dwell on these discarded 
hypotheses, and on the process by which they were condemned, as 
Kepler has done. But all who discover truths must have reasoned 
upon many errors to obtain each truth ; every accepted doctrine 
must have been one selected out of many candidates. In making 
many conjectures which on trial proved erroneous, Kepler was no 



REFLECTIVE THINKING i8i 

more fanciful or unphilosophical than other discoverers have been. 
Discovery is not a cautious or rigorous process in the sense of ab- 
staining from such suppositions. But there are great differences, 
in different cases, in the facility with which guesses are proved 
to be errors and in the degree of attention with which the error 
and the proof are afterwards dwelt on. Kepler certainly was re- 
markable for the labor which he gave to such self-refutations and 
for the candor and copiousness with which he narrated them ; his 
works are in this way extremely curious and amusing and are a 
very instructive exhibition of the mental process of discovery. But 
in this respect, I venture to believe, they exhibit to us the usual 
process (somewhat caricatured) of inventive minds — they rather 
exemplify the I'ule of genius than (as has generally been hitherto 
taught) the exception. We may add that if many of Kepler's 
guesses now appear fanciful and absurd, because time and obser- 
vation have refuted them, others, which were at the time equally 
gratuitous, have been confirmed by succeeding discoveries in a 
manner which makes them appear marvelously sagacious, as, for 
instance, his assertion of the rotation of the sun on [its] axis before 
the invention of the telescope, and his opinion that the obliquity of 
the ecliptic was decreasing but would, after a long-continued dimi- 
nution, stop and then increase again. Nothing can be more just, 
as well as more poetically happy, than Kepler's picture of the phi- 
losopher's pursuit of scientific truth, conveyed by means of an 
allusion to Vergil's shepherd and shepherdess. 

Malo me Galatea petit, lasciva puella, 
Et fugit ad salices, et se cupit ante videri. 

Coy yet inviting, Galatea loves 
To sport in sight, then plunge into the groves ; 
The challenge given, she darts along the green, 
Will not be caught, yet would not run unseen. 

We may notice as another peculiarity of Kepler's reasonings the 
length and laboriousness of the processes by which he discovered 
the errors of his first guesses. One of the most important talents 
requisite for a discoverer is the ingenuity and skill which devises 
means for rapidly testing false suppositions as they offer themselves. 



1 82 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

This talent Kepler did not possess ; he was not even a good arith- 
metical calculator, often making mistakes, some of which he detected 
and laments, while others escaped him to the last. But his defects 
in this respect were compensated by his courage and perseverance 
in undertaking and executing such tasks ; and, what was still more 
admirable, he never allowed the labor he had spent upon any con- 
jecture to produce any reluctance in abandoning the hypothesis as 
soon as he had evidence of its inaccuracy. The only way in which he 
rewarded himself for his trouble was by describing to the world, 
in his lively manner, his schemes, exertions, and feelings. (24 : 
291-292) 

Gal tons description of reflective thinking. — Another ex- 
ample of the difference between the finished product of reflec- 
tive thought and the process itself is found in the descriptions 
by Sir Francis Galton (1822-1911) of his own thinking and 
of that of others in solving problems or organizing a series 
of ideas. Galton said : 

When I am engaged in trying to think anything out, the process 
of doing so appears to me to be this : The ideas that lie at any 
moment within my full consciousness seem to attract of their own 
accord the most appropriate of a number of other ideas that are 
lying close at hand, but imperfectly within the range of my con- 
sciousness. There seems to be a presence chamber in my mind 
where full consciousness holds court, and where two or three ideas 
are at the same time in audience, and an antechamber full of more 
or less allied ideas, which is situated just beyond the full ken of 
consciousness. Out of this antechamber the ideas most nearly allied 
to those in the presence chamber appear to be summoned in a 
mechanically logical way, and to have their turn of audience. 

The successful progress of thought appears to depend, first, on 
a large attendance in the antechamber ; secondly, on the presence 
there of no ideas except such as are strictly germane to the topic 
under consideration ; thirdly, on the justness of the logical mechan- 
ism that issues the summons. The thronging of the antechamber 
is, I am convinced, altogether beyond my control ; if the ideas do 
not appear, I cannot create them nor compel them to come. The 



REFLECTIVE THINKING 183 

exclusion of alien ideas is accompanied by a sense of mental effort 
and volition whenever the topic under consideration is unattractive ; 
otherwise it proceeds automatically, for if an intruding idea finds 
nothing to cling to, it is unable to hold its place in the antechamber, 
and slides back again. (12 : 203-204) 

James and Dewey piwide best discussions of I'eflective 
thinking, — In recent years the writings of William James 
(184 2- 191 o) and Professor John Dewey have tended to con- 
centrate attention on the psychology of the thinking process 
itself as distinguished from the logical quality of the finished 
products of such thinking. Dewey's '' How we Think " 
(19 10) contains the best accounts of the results of this study. 
It takes up such topics as the following : What is thought ? 
The need for training thought. The analysis of a complete 
act of thought. Language and the training of thought. The 
recitation and the training of thought, etc. The student who 
is interested in studying the process of reflective thought in- 
tensively should read Dewey's book carefully several times. 
Most of the recent books on methods of teaching exhibit 
results of Dewey's influence. 

Dewey s summary of characteristics of reflective thinking. 
— The following quotation summarizes Dewey's characteri- 
zation of reflective thought. In reading it the student should 
have in mind some examples of reflective thinking which he 
has carried on, such as planning a vacation, in order to see 
whether Dewey's description is typical. The headlines are not 
in the original, and the paragraphing is slightly altered. 

Origifi in some perplexity. — We may recapitulate by saying that 
the origin of thinking is some perplexity, confusion, or doubt. 
Thinking is not a case of spontaneous combustion ; it does not 
occur just on " general principles." There is something specific 
which occasions and evokes it. General appeals to a child (or to 
a grown-up) to think, irrespective of the existence in his own ex- 
perience of some difficulty that troubles him and disturbs his equi- 
librium, are as futile as advice to lift himself by his boot-straps. 



1 84 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

Form a tentative plan based on past experience. — Given a diffi- 
culty, the next step is suggestion of some way out — the formation 
of some tentative plan or project, the entertaining of some theory 
which will account for the peculiarities in question, the considera- 
tion of some solution for the problem. The data at hand cannot 
supply the solution ; they can only suggest it. What, then, are 
the sources of the suggestion ? Clearly past experience and prior 
knowledge. If the person has had some acquaintance with similar 
situations, if he has dealt with material of the same sort before, 
suggestions more or less apt or helpful are likely to arise. But 
unless there has been experience in some degree analogous, which 
may now be represented in imagination, confusion remains mere 
confusion. There is nothing upon which to draw in order to clarify 
it. Even when a child (or a grown-up) has a problem, to urge him 
to think when he has no prior experiences involving some of the 
same conditions is wholly futile. 

Plan not accepted until ca^'efully examined and criticized. — If 
the suggestion that occurs is at once accepted, we have uncritical 
thinking, the minimum of reflection. To turn the thing over in 
mind, to reflect, means to hunt for additional evidence, for new 
data, that will develop the suggestion and will either, as we say, 
bear it out or else make obvious its absurdity and irrelevance. 
Given a genuine difficulty and a reasonable amount of analogous 
experience to draw upon, the difference, par excellence., between 
good and bad thinking is found at this point. The easiest way is 
to accept any suggestion that seems plausible and thereby bring 
to an end the condition of mental uneasiness. Reflective thinking 
is always more or less troublesome, because it involves overcoming 
the inertia that inclines one to accept suggestions at their face 
value ; it involves willingness to endure a condition of mental 
unrest .... Reflective thinking, in short, means judgment sus- 
pended during inquiry, and suspense is likely to be somewhat 
painful. . . . The most important factor in the training of good 
mental habits consists in acquiring the attitude of suspended con- 
clusion and in mastering the various methods of searching for new 
materials to corroborate or to refute the first suggestions that occur. 
To maintain the state of doubt and to carry on systematic and pro- 
tracted inquiry — these are the essentials of thinking. (5 : 12-13) 



REFLECTIVE THINKING 185 

Assisting pupils to solve problems. — Such thinking as 
Dewey describes has various characteristics which are sum- 
marized in these quoted paragraphs. In order to bring out 
these characteristics more clearly, we shall take up several of 
them for detailed consideration. In each case we shall be 
interested primarily in two points; namely, (i) how is the 
given characteristic related to efficiency or skill in reflective 
thinking, and (2) how can the teacher assist pupils to acquire 
or exhibit this efficiency. The characteristics will be taken 
up under the following main headings. 

I. Defining the problem and keeping it clearly in mind. 
II. Stimulating fertility of suggestion. 

III. Critical evaluation of suggestions. 

IV. Methods of organizing the material of thinking. 

I. Defining the Problem 

Great dijferences between individuals in ability to define 
problems. — The first essentials in efficient reflective thinking 
are {a) to get the problem or difficulty clearly in mind, that 
is, to get it clearly defined, and {b) to keep it clearly in mind. 
There are interesting individual differences in the ability to 
follow these rules. We may distinguish roughly three degrees 
of efficiency in locating and defining problems. 

For example, in what may be assumed to be a perplexing 
situation, at one extreme we shall find some persons who will 
not see any problem in it at all ; they will not realize that 
there is anything wrong or that anything needs to be done. 
This complacent attitude is exhibited by people in all types 
of situations, in case a train is delayed or some one is ill, 
or if the tariff needs readjustment or a school curriculum 
needs revision. They simply " sit tight " mentally and are 
not disturbed. 

Somewhat more developed than this type are those per- 
sons who have a vague feeling that something is wrong and 



i86 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

something ought to be done, but who are not clear as to the 
nature of the problem. They are likely simply to look worried 
and wring their hands or to jump to conclusions and do various 
things in random or impulsive ways. Thus, if a person has 
a headache, an observer may feel sorry but sit by in a help- 
less sort of way ; or he may prescribe soda mints, pepsin, 
hot water, aspirin, salts, liver pills, and all the other remedies 
that he can recall as having been used in cases of headache, 
and may urge the sick one to take them all. Another good 
example is found in the activities of the automobile owner 
who begins to tinker in all sorts of random ways with his 
machine when trouble appears, instead of making some in- 
tellectual study of the problem presented. 

On the other hand, a skilled, reflective thinker, represented 
in the case of the headache by the physician, recognizes that 
the first essential is to define the problem more specifically 
by finding the probable cause of the headache. He keeps 
this problem of diagnosis in mind and works on it, ask- 
ing questions which will define the trouble more and more 
clearly. 

Deliberative bodies have diffictilty i7i keeping a problem i^t 
mind. — The part played in reflective thinking by the two 
factors which we have been discussing, namely, {a) locating 
and defining a problem and {b) keeping it clearly in mind, 
are well illustrated by the thinking done in a deliberative 
body — for example, during a debate in a committee or before 
a legislative assembly. In the first place, it is very surprising 
how long it takes a body of well-educated persons to get 
the purport of a motion — to understand what is the prob- 
lem before the house. In the second place, it is wonder- 
ful with what ease they will wander from the topic of the 
discussion — will fail to keep the problem clearly in mind. 
One of the chief attributes of a skilled presiding officer is 
his ability to keep the discussion to the problem before 
the house. 



REFLECTIVE THINKING 187 

Another excellent example of the mental activity involved 
in defining problems is the preliminary work done by de- 
bating teams in determining the exact wording of a question 
for debate. In this case many hours may be spent in get- 
ting the problem in mind with sufficient clearness to secure 
a satisfactory wording. 

Teacher shoidd assist pitpil by atithority or suggestion. — 
Since the failure to define problems definitely and to keep 
them clearly in mind is such a common tendency, it is evi- 
dent that training along these lines is one of the most im- 
portant phases of training in thinking. In this connection 
the teacher serves the same purpose as the presiding officer 
of a deliberative body. He may act either authoritatively, 
however, or by suggestion ; that is, he may either say directly 
that a student has not kept the problem in mind or he may 
by suggestion lead the student to realize this and thus begin 
the development of a habit of self-criticism and self-checking. 

II. Stimulating Fertility of Suggestio7t 

Various degrees of ability depend on knowledge and re- 
call. — The second aspect of efficient reflective thinking con- 
cerns methods of stimulating, systematizing, and controlling 
suggestions. Other things being equal, the person who thinks 
of a hundred matters related to the perplexity or difficulty or 
problem is more likely to find a helpful suggestion than the 
person who thinks of only ten. In other words, fertility in 
suggestion is a helpful factor in reflective thinking. This 
fertility depends upon two things : first, knowledge of related 
ideas, and, second, the ease and fullness with which these 
ideas are recalled when needed. In this connection we find 
striking differences between individuals when confronted with 
a problem in connection with which they should recall and 
use their knowledge. Various combinations of the two factors 
occur, such as (a) little knowledge and meager recall, {b) vast 



i88 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

knowledge but meager recall, (c) little knowledge but rather 
full recall, (d) vast knowledge and fairly full recall. It is 
evident that the last combination is most favorable for fertile 
suggestion. 

How can teacher stimulate maximum of suggestions ? — 
The point that interests us here is, assuming a given body 
of knowledge on the part of the thinker. How can the teacher 
help him to bring it to bear upon the problem .? that is, how 
can the teacher stimulate the maximum possible fertility of 
suggestion under the circumstances, and how can he train 
the student to systematize and control it .? The answer can 
be discussed to advantage under several subheadings. 

I. Assist students to analyze situations. — The teacher 
should help the student to analyze a situation into its parts 
or aspects as a means of systematically stimulating sugges- 
tions. Here again we find the 
most striking differences between 
individuals who are confronted 
with a problem — for example, students who are trying to 
solve a geometry exercise. The unskilled thinker will sit and 
stare at the problem as if he expected the solution to jump 
out at him. A better type of thinker, on the other hand, 
will begin to break the problem up either by an analysis of its 
statement or by an examination of the figure which has been 
constructed. Instead of depending on the gross situation for 
suggestions, he will pick out now this aspect, now another, 
in hopes that the correct suggestion may occur. By multi- 
plying the sources of suggestions he multiplies their number. 
By dividing he conquers. For example, let a student be given 
as an exercise in geometry to prove that the sum of three angles 
of a triangle is equal to two right angles ; or, in other words, to 
prove, in the accompanying figure, that Zi+Z2 + ^3=2 
right angles. 

The student who begins by dropping perpendiculars, draw- 
ing bisectors, drawing parallel lines, prolonging lines, etc. 




REFLECTIVE THINKING 189 

would be more likely to succeed than a student who simply 
stares at the unmodified figure without drawing or imagining 
modifications. 

Similarly, in the case of a headache, the person who begins 
to inquire about the place and kind of aching, what the suf- 
ferer had been doing, whether he had other pains also, 
whether he had fever, etc. would be more likely to find a 
means of dealing with the situation than one who did not 
open up these various avenues of suggestion. 

As a third example of the value of analysis in reflective 
thinking, suppose the problem is to find the cause of the 
increased cost of living ; or, to make the situation more con- 
crete, suppose a man wants to find out why it now costs 
him ^125 a month for running expenses, whereas two years 
ago it cost only ^100 a month. Obviously, in this case the 
first step is a careful analysis and inventory of the ele- 
ments which enter into running expenses. Yet hundreds 
of persons wonder and wonder about this problem without 
taking the first step to find out where the increased cost lies. 

From the standpoint of the part played by analysis, James 
thus compares the activities of the reasoner and the ordinary 
unanalytical thinker: 

The results of reasoning may be hit upon by accident. [For 
example, although] the stereoscope was actually a result of reason- 
ing, it is conceivable . . . that a man playing with pictures and 
mirrors might accidentally have hit upon it. [Similarly,] cats have 
been known to open doors by pulling latches, etc. But no cat, if 
the latch got out of order, could open the door again unless some 
new accident of random fumbling taught her to associate some 
new total movement with the total phenomenon of the closed door. 
A reasoning man, however, would open the door by first analyzing 
the hindrance. He would ascertain what particular feature of the 
door was wrong. The lever, for example, does not raise the latch 
sufficiently from its slot — case of insufficient elevation ; raise 
door bodily on its hinges ! Or door sticks at top by friction against 
lintel — press it bodily down ! ... By many measurements of 



I90 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

triangles one might find their area always equal to their height 
multiplied by half their base, and one might formulate an empirical 
law to that effect. But a reasoner saves himself all this trouble by 
seeing that it is the essence ... of a triangle to be the half of 
a parallelogram whose area is the height into the entire base. To 
see this he must invent additional lines, and the geometer must 
often draw such to get at the essential property he may require in 
a figure. The essence consists in some relation of the figure to the 
7iew lines — a relation not obvious at all until they are put in. The 
geometer's sagacity lies in the invention of the new lines. (6 Vol. II : 

339-340) 

2. Stimtdate formation of definite hypotheses and recall 
of general principles. — The teacher will also assist the pupil 
to formulate a number of hypotheses or guessed solutions 
of the problem. This is closely related to the systematic 
analysis discussed above, but brings in the element of definitely 
formulated possible solutions of the problem. Thus, in the 
case of a person suffering from a headache a series of definite 
hypotheses would be the following: (i) The headache may 
be due to acute indigestion, (2) It may be due to eyestrain. 
(3) It may be due to nervousness or mental strain accompany- 
ing divided or strained attention. (4) It may be a phase of 
some infection, such as malaria, cold, grippe, etc. Such a 
series of hypotheses forms a very definite basis for further 
suggestions, which may be treated more systematically and 
hence more economically and effectively. 

Concerning the character of the hypothesis, De Garmo says : 

The form of the hypothesis will of course follow the solution 
called for by the nature of the problem. In history and in some 
departments of natural science it will call for either prediction as 
to cause or effect, or both. Were the problem, What was the effect 
of English home politics upon English colonial policy at the time 
of the [American] Revolution ? the facts gathered and the hypotheses 
devised would pertain first to causes and then the . . . prediction 
as to their probable effect. In similar fashion the problem may 
be to determine the influence of circumstances upon two historical 



REFLECTIVE THINKING 191 

characters, one of whom appears to have been molded by them, 
while the other seems to have controlled them for his own pur- 
poses. The hypothesis is in place here, even though it is as shifting 
as the flight of birds. Did this or that contingency turn the expected 
victory to defeat ? Yes, for the sleet storm retarded the designed 
movement of troops. No, for there were more fundamental rea- 
sons, perhaps of a psychical nature ; the men were discouraged by 
their losses and the apparent hopelessness of their cause. (4 : 94) 

Methods of assisting pupils to solve geometry exercises by 
recall of propositions. — Another w^ay of expressing this same 
process from a slightly different point of view^ is to say that 
the teacher should assist pupils to recall 
and apply general principles or rules v^hich i \5 

may bear on the problem. This is well 

illustrated in the case of the student 

solving a geometry exercise when he is 
searching for the previously proven propo- 
sitions which he may apply. For example, in the proposition 
cited above, to prove that the sum of the three angles of a 
triangle equals two right angles, the propositions which the 
pupil needs to apply are those concerning the relationships 
of angles formed when parallel lines are cut by transversals, 
as in the accompanying figure, where Zi =Z2 = Z3 = Z4 
and Z 5 = Z 6 = Aj = Z8. To think, without assistance, of 
the application of these propositions to the problem about the 
triangle is probably more than could be expected of any 
high-school student. Some students could make the applica- 
tion with a little assistance from the teacher, however, while 
others would need much assistance and some would have to 
be told outright. The various stages or degrees of assistance 
which the teacher might offer have been discussed by 
Thorndike as follows : 

The crucial step ... is the direction of the pupil's search for 
the proper class under which to think of the fact in question. . . . 



192 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

[This] essential step in reasoning must sometimes be omitted in 
order to preserve the less capable pupils from vain efforts or ran- 
dom guessing and to save time. But the wise course is not to 
eliminate altogether the independent search by pupils for the 
proper class, but to make it easier and briefer by directing it. 

It is made easier by (i) systematizing the process of search, 
(2) by limiting the number of classes amongst which the pupil 
must search for the right one, (3) by informing him of classes 
which include the right one and which he would neglect if undi- 
rected, and (4) by calling his attention to the consequences of 
membership in this or that class. . . . [In other words, the forms 
of assistance may be classified as] 

1. Systematizing the search. 

2. Reducing alternatives. 

3. Suggesting a useful alternative. 

4. Suggesting consequences. (11: 161-163,173) 

To parallel Thorndike's application of these principles to 
the proving of a geometry exercise, take the example of 



A c ^ ^ 

I. DRAW CBD PARALLEL IL PROLONG AC AND DRAW CE 

TO AC PARALLEL TO AB 

proving that the sum of the three angles of a triangle is 
equal to two right angles, cited above on pages 188 and 191. 
Probably all that would be necessary in the case of the brighter 
pupils would be to carry out method number 2, namely, re- 
ducing alternatives. This could be done by suggesting that 
either one of the above constructions might be used. 

For other pupils further assistance might be necessary. 
Perhaps simply systematizing their search by asking them 
to examine the relations of the angles thus formed would 
help. If this did not prove to be sufficient aid, they might 



REFLECTIVE THINKING 193 

be informed of the classes which they should have in mind 
by the question, ''What relationship exists between angles 
formed when parallel lines are cut by a transversal ? " Finally, 
if more assistance were needed, the consequences could be 
suggested by asking, ''In the case of figure I what relation 
exists between Z i and Z 4 ? between Z 3 and Z 5 ? What 
is the sum of Z 4 + Z 2 + Z 5 ? " 

Thus fertility of suggestion may be stimulated by the 
teacher's getting students to analyze, or break up, a problem 
or situation into various aspects, to formulate various hypothe- 
ses or guessed solutions of the problem, and to recall and 
apply certain general principles which they have in stock. 

III. Critical Evaluation of Suggestions 

So far we have discussed two aspects of reflective think- 
ing, namely (I) defining the problem and keeping it in mind, 
and (II) fertility of suggestion. The third aspect to be con- 
sidered is the critical, unbiased evaluation of suggestions from 
the standpoint of their bearing on the problem. 

Critical ability may offset mediocre fertility of suggestion. 
— This aspect may be contrasted with the second aspect 
which we discussed, namely, fertility of suggestion. Such 
fertility is valuable only when it is correlated with the other 
two factors, namely, clear realization of the problem and 
critical selection and rejection with reference to it. Here 
again we find interesting individual differences. A person 
possessed of much knowledge and ready recall may be an 
inefficient thinker because he lacks critical ability or critical 
habits. Hence the child who may be considered bright when 
measured by the standard of glib suggestions may be stupid 
when measured by the standard of critical, controlled thinking. 
On the other hand, a person may be only mediocre in knowl- 
edge and readiness of recall but be a fairly efficient thinker 
because of superior critical ability. 



194 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

Expressed as aspects of the teacher's method, the dis- 
cussion of unbiased critical evaluation of suggestions may be 
formulated as follows : 

1 . Maintain attiUide of suspended ptdgment. — The 
teacher should encourage pupils to maintain an attitude of 
suspended conclusion or suspended judgment. This is neces- 
sary not only in order to provide for a thorough canvass of 
the problem but also in order to obviate bias which may 
interfere with the thinker's selection and evaluation of data 
or evidence. As Dewey says in the quotation given above 
(page 184), ''the most important factor in the training of 
good mental habits consists in acquiring the attitude of sus- 
pended conclusion." 

Discussing the matter further, he says : 

Imagine a doctor called in to prescribe for a patient. The 
patient tells him some things that are wrong ; his experienced 
eye, at a glance, takes in other signs of a certain disease. But if 
he permits the suggestion of this special disease to take possession 
prematurely of his mind, — to become an accepted conclusion, — 
his scientific thinking is by that much cut short. A large part of 
his technique as a practitioner is to prevent the acceptance of the 
first suggestions that arise. (5 : 74) 

The maintenance of the attitude of suspended conclusion, 
however, does not mean that the student will refrain from 
formulating definite hypotheses, but it means that he will 
evaluate these hypotheses in an open-minded and unbiased 
way. This brings us to the next phase of the teacher's 
method of training in reflective thinking. 

2. Criticize all suggestions. — The teacher will stimulate 
students to criticize each suggestion and to think out its 
possible consequences. This process is discussed by Dewey 
in the following terms : 

Acceptance of the suggestion in its first form is prevented by 
looking into it more thoroughly. Conjectures that seem plausible 



REFLECTIVE THINKING 195 

at first sight are often found unfit or even absurd when their full 
consequences are traced out. Even when reasoning out the bear- 
ings of a supposition does not lead to rejection, it develops the 
idea into a form in which it is more apposite to the problem. . . . 
Suggestions at first seemingly remote and wild are frequently so 
transformed by being elaborated into what follows from them as 
to become apt and fruitful. (5:76) 

This idea is so well illustrated by the long quotation con- 
cerning the investigations by Kepler, given above on page 180, 
that further examples are unnecessary. 

3. Be systematic in selecting and rejecting hypotheses. — 
The teacher will stimulate students to be systematic in select- 
ing useful suggestions and rejecting useless ones. The em- 
phasis here is on orderliness in selection and rejection. 
Critical evaluation will proceed much more economically if 
it can be so ordered as to avoid useless repetition. Hence 
the alternative suggestions or hypotheses which present 
themselves may be arranged in some order, and then con- 
sidered in turn, each one being followed through in a careful 
and fairly thorough way. This simply means that the rule 
about keeping the problem clearly in mind is applied to 
the consideration of the various subproblems into which the 
main problem becomes resolved. An unskilled thinker will 
jump around in a more or less haphazard way from one 
hypothesis to another. In this way he goes over the same 
ground time and again and works around in a circle to a 
considerable extent. Again, illustrations of this failure in 
reflective thinking are found in the deliberations of legis- 
lative bodies, committees, etc. The chairman is constantly 
under the necessity of reminding some member that the 
topic or suggestion which he is discussing has already been 
thrashed out in the previous discussion and that now the 
meeting is considering some other aspect of the case. 

This emphasis on the systematic checking and following 
through of one aspect at a time does not mean, however, 



196 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

that the thinker should refrain from returning to reconsider 
any hypothesis, provided some new evidence or imphcation 
occurs to mind ; but he ought to reahze clearly at the time that 
it is new evidence or implication. Even in this case it may 
often be well to note the necessity of returning for reexami- 
nation of the previous hypothesis but to continue at the time the 
consideration of the aspect to which attention was being devoted 
at the time the evidence for reconsideration came to mind. 

4. Verify by fiLrther evidence and by testing infliLences. — 
The teacher should stimulate students to verify their conclu- 
sions. One method of doing this is simply to examine other 
cases to see if the conclusion holds for them also. Thus, when 
a college president endeavors to prove the superior value of 
a college education by pointing to the number of college 
graduates who have attained high office, the unbiased inves- 
tigator will ask for further evidence in the form of a random 
selection of college graduates, which will be found to con- 
tain men in all walks of life, including tramps and other un- 
desirable citizens. Or if a high-school principal is claiming 
that he has a superior school because some of his graduates 
have won honors in college, verification may be secured by 
investigating the records of all of his graduates that go to 
college from several classes. 

Example of Newton s verification of lazv of tmiversal 
gravitation. — Another method of verification is to infer 
from the conclusion or proposition, that certain other results 
must follow if it is true, and then to test to see if they do 
follow in point of fact. For example. Sir Isaac Newton 
(164 2-1 727) desired to test his conclusion that all bodies 
attract each other directly as their masses and inversely as 
the square of the distance between them, that is, the law of 
universal gravitation. He chose the attraction between the 
earth and the moon as a basis for verification, and compared 
the inferred movements of the moon according to his law 
with its actual movements as observed by astronomers. He 



REFLECTIVE THINKING 197 

knew from actual astronomical observations and calculations 
that the moon was deflected from its tangent thirtee^i feet a 
minute ; but by the calculation which he made in 1 666^ if 
the moon were deflected by gravity, according to his law it 
should be deflected _;?/?6?^;/ feet a minute. So he decided that 
his hypothesis was not proved, because it did not agree with 
the observed astronomical facts. In time, however, it was 
discovered that the magnitude of the radius of the earth 
which he had used in his calculation of 1666 was incorrect. 
In 1679, using the correct magnitude, he repeated the cal- 
culation of the deflection of the moon according to his law, 
and found that the result agreed with the observed facts and 
consequently verified his hypothesis. 

Two methods of verification illustrated by debate concern- 
ing heredity and environment. — Both methods of verifica- 
tion may be illustrated by the debate concerning the relative 
influence of environment and heredity or original nature. 
One person may make the statement that he believes heredity 
is not an important factor, because he knows of a particular 
case in which a son's traits could not be derived from his 
parents. Verification in this particular case might involve 
getting further evidence about it — further family history 
which might show, for example, that the son was like his 
grandfather and thus establish the fact of heredity. 

The other method of verification might start from the fol- 
lowing statement : ''If heredity or original nature is a very 
powerful factor, we may infer that similar children who are 
brought up under different circumstances ought to remain 
similar, and different (dissimilar) children who are brought 
up under identical circumstances ought to remain different 
(dissimilar)." The verification would consist in finding such 
cases and noting the actual results, as Sir Francis Galton did 
in England in the case of similar twins brought up under dif- 
ferent circumstances, and dissimilar twins brought up under 
similar circumstances. The evidence was strongly in favor of 



iqs teaching in high schools * 

the influence of heredity; that is, the similar twins brought up 
differently remained similar, and the dissimilar twins brought 
up with similar training remained dissimilar. (12: 216-246) 
Students should be trained to accept all conclusions as 
tentative and to be interested in searching for further evi- 
dence and working out the further implications of the con- 
clusions in order to determine their validity. Among untrained 
thinkers nothing is more striking than their failure to require 
any evidence for many of their conclusions, and their inability to 
determine the value of evidence when it is presented ; folklore, 
tradition, and general gossip are accepted as being reliable and 
as possessing the same validity as conclusions vouched for by 
competent experts and backed up by carefully weighed evidence. 

IV. Organizing the Material of Thinking 

Up to this point we have considered three principal aspects 
of reflective thinking : (I) defining the problem and keeping 
it clearly in mind ; (II) fertility of suggestion ; (III) critical, 
unbiased evaluation of suggestions. The fourth aspect con- 
cerns methods of organizing the material of thought in such 
a way as to assist in the process of thinking. In this connec- 
tion the following rules may be discussed : 

I . Take stock periodically a7id keep systematic check on 
field covered. — The teacher should stimulate pupils to ''take 
stock" of the results of the inquiry from time to time, and to 
express these in a concise, clear formulation. This is particu- 
larly necessary if the inquiry takes considerable time. The 
''stock-taking" might involve a review of the suggestions and 
hypotheses that have been made, the notation of steps which 
are completed, the statement of what remains to be done, and 
the concise formulation of tentative conclusions. In reflective 
thinking a person ordinarily thinks of so many things, both 
relevant and irrelevant, that it is very easy for him to get 
tangled up and to lose track of what has been done and what 



REFLECTIVE THINKING 199 

remains. Moreover, it is easy for a suggestion to slip his mind. 
He may have noted it as one to be considered, but have over- 
looked it in the general rush of associated ideas. If the think- 
ing is being done by a class, a helpful device is to develop 
an outline on the blackboard as the discussion progresses. 

2. Use -methods of tabulation a7id graphic expression. — 
The teacher should assist students to devise and use methods 
of tabulation and graphic representation that will make for 
economy and clearness in thinking. The graphic represen- 
tation of data by means of curves of distribution is a device 
that is now being taught even to children in elementary 
schools. No more striking example of the value of this aid to 
thinking can be found than the well-known Bryan and Harter 
curve, which shows the improvement made by a student who 
is learning the telegraphic language (see above, p. 145). The 
rise of the curve and its characteristic level places, or plateaus, 
show at a glance what the character of the learner's progress 
has been. Numerous examples of the use of graphic methods 
of representation are to be found in the textbooks on mathe- 
matics and the natural and social sciences. For examples 
in connection with educational inquiries see the curves on 
pages 372, 376, and 377, below. 

Summary of suggestions for guiding reflective thinking. — 
In the foregoing discussion certain rules have been formulated 
in terms of what the teacher should do to stimulate efficient 
problem-solving by students. These rules may be briefly 
summarized as follows : 

To stimulate and assist pupils in carrying on reflective thinking the 
teacher should 

I. Get them to define the problem at issue and keep it clearly in 
mind. 

I I . Get them to recall as many related ideas as possible by encourag- 
ing them 

1. To analyze the situation and 

2. To formulate definite hypotheses and to recall general rules 
or principles that may apply. 



200 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

III. Get them to evaluate carefully each suggestion by encouraging 
them 

1. To maintain an attitude of unbiased, suspended judgment 
or conclusion, 

2. To criticize each suggestion, 

3. To be systematic in selecting and rejecting suggestions, and 

4. To verify conclusions. 

IV. Get them to organize their material so as to aid in the process 
of thinking by encouraging them 

1. To '' take stock " from time to time, 

2. To use methods of tabulation and graphic expression, and 

3. To express concisely the tentative conclusions reached from 
time to time during the inquiry. (This topic will be discussed more 
fully in the second section of the chapter.) 

Four types of opportunities for students to do reflective 
thinking. — The opportunities which are provided for stu- 
dents to do reflective thinking, and which the teacher may 
use, can be classified as follows : 

1. Opportunities for the student to do his own reasoning, 
that is, to reason independently. 

2. Opportunities to follow and supplement the reasoning 
of other students. 

3. Opportunities to follow and supplement the reasoning 
being done by the teacher. 

. 4. Opportunities to follow and supplement the reasoning 
set forth in a book. 

There are two principal questions to be considered in con- 
nection with each of these opportunities : One is the question 
of time and the other is the question of value. 

I. In iftdependent reasoning much time is needed for 
''scrapped'' thought. — As suggested in the descriptions by 
Whewell and Galton of reflective thinking (see pp. 180-183), 
in reaching the solution of a problem there is an enormous 
amount of waste thought even by such geniuses as Kepler. 
Hundreds of suggestions come to mind which are not perti- 
nent or helpful and which must be evaluated and rejected. 
All this takes time, but if an individual is to do his own 



REFLECTIVE THINKING 20I 

reasoning, the time and opportunity for this waste, or 
''scrapped," thought must be provided. If this is done in 
the school, it means that the student must have occasions 
to work by himself, to solve his own problems, and that he 
must not be expected to cover nearly the amount of ground 
that is ordinarily laid down in the course of study. 

There are extremists who argue that all education should 
consist of this process of discovery by the student. Rousseau 
in his '' Emile" and Herbert Spencer in his chapter on Intel- 
lectual Education have presented the best-known appeals in 
favor of this practice. There is no doubt that superior train- 
ing may be secured from individual research by the student, 
stimulated and guided by the teacher. Consequently a certain 
amount of this type of work should be provided in the form 
of individual problems to be worked out by laboratory or 
library investigations or merely by reflective thinking about 
the problems. 

2. Group 7'easoning. Bright st2Lde7its achieve ; slozv ones 
benefit less. — But profit from the experience of others as well 
as training in reflective thinking can be secured if the other 
methods mentioned above are also used. For example, if a 
problem is being worked out by a class as a group of thinkers, 
each individual student may be stimulated and held respon- 
sible for contributing to and appreciating the solution. As a 
result of the greater fertility of suggestion resulting from the 
larger number of minds, the problem may be solved in a 
shorter time and yet the essentials of the whole process of 
reflective thought may be retained. The greatest difficulty for 
the teacher is to make sure that every individual participates 
and contributes as he should. There is danger that only the 
more rapid thinkers will make suggestions and evaluate them, 
and that the slower members of the class will simply observe 
the results. Even if this is the case, however, the slower ones 
may profit somewhat from observing the process by which 
the problem is solved. Moreover, even though they do not 



202 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

forge ahead with suggestions and evaluations, they may still 
be ''in the running " and profit from the experience. 

Teacher must allow pupils to evaluate their suggestions. — 
In directing this type of group thinking, certain dangers 
which the teacher should avoid are suggested by Dewey in 
the following quotation : 

The inductive inference, the guess, is formed by the student; 
[ordinarily], if it happens to be correct, it is at once accepted by 
the teacher ; or if it is false, it is rejected. If any amplification of 
the idea occurs, it is quite likely carried through by the teacher, who 
thereby assumes the responsibility for its intellectual development. 
But a complete, an integral, act of thought requires that the person 
making the suggestion (the guess) be responsible also for reason- 
ing out its bearings upon the problem in hand — that he develop 
the suggestion at least enough to indicate the ways in which it 
applies to and accounts for the specific data of the case. Too 
often . . . , after calling out the spontaneous reflections of the 
pupils (their guesses or ideas about the matter), [the teacher] 
merely accepts or rejects them, assuming himself the responsibility 
for their elaboration. In this way the function of suggestion and 
of interpretation is excited, but it is not directed and trained. 
(5 : 97-98) 

3 . Usually only bright ptipils profit from following teacher s 
reasoning. — The third type of opportunity for reflective think- 
ing, namely, following the reasoning done by the teacher, is 
probably of little value from the standpoint of training in 
thinking except for the superior students who approximate 
the teacher in reasoning capacity. For the mediocre or poor 
student, merely observing the teacher's activity does not 
provide training in reasoning any more than watching a play 
trains him in acting. He gets some training from it, but 
not much. The superior student, on the other hand, may 
be trained by following the teacher's reasoning. For one 
thing, he thinks much faster than the teacher talks ; conse- 
quently he is anticipating the teacher by silent suggestions and 



REFLECTIVE THINKING 203 

evaluations. A comparison of these with those made by the 
teacher shows him whether he is right or wrong. Moreover, 
he probably not only follows the teacher's reasoning but ob- 
serves as well the latter's method, and then either consciously 
or unconsciously imitates it or, if he thinks it is a poor one, 
may purposely avoid it. The total amount of training received 
by a class from following the teacher's reasoning is probably 
too small to make this an important basis for such training 
except in the case of advanced or superior students. 

4. Properly constructed books may provide good opportu- 
7iities for reasoning. — The fourth kind of opportunity for 
training in reflective thinking, namely, following and supple- 
menting the reasoning outlined in a book, has possibilities 
that are not generally appreciated. It is generally assumed 
that a book provides primarily opportunities for acquiring in- 
formation, but the possibilities of providing also for training 
in reasoning approximate in some subjects the possibilities of 
providing for the independent individual reasoning discussed 
above (p. 200, §1). An excellent example of such a book is 
the textbook on economics from which a quotation was made 
at the beginning of this chapter (see p. 172). Another good 
example is E. L. Thorndike's '' Principles of Teaching," in 
which two thirds of the book is taken up with exercises 
intended to give students training in thinking about problems 
of teaching. Other examples of books which tend to provide 
for reasoning instead of mere acquisition of facts or ideas 
are the recent '' suggestive " geometries, which place the em- 
phasis upon the solution of exercises instead of on the mem- 
orizing of proofs of propositions. One of the best arguments 
in favor of this tendency is found in A. Schultze's ''Teaching 
of Mathematics in Secondary Schools." It reads in part as 
follows : 

The most cominofi error of geometric instruction is the fact that the 
knowledge of book demonstrations is Ttiade the chief object of the 
study. 



204 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

The study of geometry should be primarily a course in the 
solution of originals and general methods of attack. The regular 
textbook propositions should be treated as exercises, with this 
difference, that the facts stated by them should be remembered. 

Exercises, however, should be studied not in order to be remem- 
bered but in order that the student may familiarize himself with 
geometric working methods, which will enable him to do other and 
more complex reasoning. 

The student's ability and progress in the subject can be meas- 
ured only by his ability to solve exercises that are original to him, 
and not by his ability to repeat well-known facts. (21 : 103) 

This quotation suggests not only the possibility of organiz- 
ing geometry books in which problem-solving is empha- 
sized, but also calls attention to the fact that the ordinary 
methods of teaching the subject do not give exercise in 
reasoning, but simply require the memorizing of a series 
of statements. 

Kind of mental activity determined by method, not by sub- 
ject matter. — These facts concerning the teaching of geom- 
etry suggest the general principle that the character of. the 
subject matter does not necessarily assure a certain type of 
mental activity on the part of the pupil. Often it is the method 
of teaching the subject matter which determines the type of 
mental activity. The same point is well illustrated in the 
teaching of natural science, which, like geometry, has ordi- 
narily been supposed to train in reasoning. The distinction 
between learning the body of scientific subject matter and 
using methods of scientific reasoning has been discussed at 
length by Dewey (13 : 121- 127) and Karl Pearson (19 : 9-12). 
It has already been considered in this book in connection 
with the distinction between the logical and psychological 
methods of organizing subject matter. (Review page 91.) 

Summary of problem-solving aspect of reflective think- 
ing. — This will conclude our discussion of the first phase 
of reflective thinking, namely, problem-solving. We have 



REFLECTIVE THINKING 205 

considered the opportunities for problem-solving which occur 
in various subjects ; the types of problems with which persons 
are confronted in ordinary life ; the nature of the process of 
reflective thinking in solving problems ; the methods which 
a teacher might use in stimulating and assisting pupils in 
solving problems ; and the relative value of independent 
reasoning by the individual pupil as compared with reason- 
ing as a member of a group, or following and supplementing 
the reasoning of the teacher, or solving a series of problems 
outlined in a book. 

In the next section of the chapter we shall take up reflec- 
tive thinking from a slightly different point of view, namely, 
from the standpoint of the part played in reflective thinking 
by the process of acquiring clearly defined abstract and 
general meanings or ideas. 



SECTION 11. ACQUIRING ABSTRACT AND GENERAL 

MEANINGS 

Plays a large part in high-school instruction. — Closely 
related to the first phase of reflective thinking which we have 
been considering, namely, problem-solving, is the learning of 
abstract and general meanings. This process plays a very 
large part in high-school instruction. This may be illustrated 
by the following list of a few of the general or abstract terms, 
the meanings of which are learned in high school or in the 
upper grades of the elementary school. 

In linginstic studies : ablative, accordance, appositive, con- 
cession, conditional subjunctive, diaeresis, ellipsis, genitive, 
gerund, hyperbole, metonymy, moods, pleonasm, pluperfect 
tense, vocatives. 

In mathematics : abscissa, binomial, conditional equations, 
constants, coordinates, determinant, exponents, geometric 
progression, indeterminate equations, logarithms, mean pro- 
portional, reciprocal, surd. 



2o6 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

In physics : aberration, acceleration, adhesion, capillarity, 
centrifugal, conduction, dialysis, diathermous, diatonic, endos- 
mose, index of refraction, viscosity. 

In botany : absorption, adaptation, bacteria, chloroplasts, 
chromosomes, fertilization, palisade cells, parthenogenesis, 
tropism, xerophytes. 

Similarly, in chemistry, economics, psychology, and other 
subjects there are hundreds of abstract or general meanings 
which must be learned in order to understand the discus- 
sions or to do reflective thinking in the various subjects. 

Examples of gejieral propositions studied. — In addition 
to the meanings of single terms there are many abstract and 
general propositions, statements, rules, or laws that have to 
be studied, understood, and learned. Examples of these are 
the following : 

From grammar : A verb agrees with its subject in number. In 
German " the subjunctive mode is used in all conditional sentences 
when the supposition is contrary to fact, and it occurs in both the 
condition and the conclusion." 

From mathematics : To reduce a fraction to its lowest terms, 
divide both its numerator and its denominator by all of their 
common factors or by their highest common factor. 

From physics : The value of the greatest resistance that can be 
overcome with a combination of pulleys is obtained by multiplying 
together the effort that is applied and the number of cords that 
support the movable pulley. 

From botafiy : It has been observed that the chloroplasts in 
these palisade cells are able to assume various positions in the 
cell, so that when the light is very intense, they move to the more 
shaded depths of the cell, and when it becomes less intense, they 
move to the more external region of the cell. The stomata, or 
breathing pores, which are developed in the epidermis, are also 
great regulators of transpiration. 

Contrasting methods used in textbooks. — As we examine 
the various methods of teaching abstract or general meanings 
and propositions which are used in textbooks, we find striking 



REFLECTIVE THINKING 207 

differences. For example, contrast the two following quota- 
tions from chemistries, which are intended to teach the meaning 
of chemical change. 

The matter of the universe is constantly changing. Sometimes 
the change temporarily modifies the special properties of the matter 
under examination, but often the change is permanent and another 
substance or kind of matter is the result. When the properties of 
a given portion of matter are so changed that a different kind of 
matter is formed, then the change is called a chemical change. If 
the properties are temporarily changed, then the substance has 
yxcA&c^ory'i 2. physical change. (18: 15) 

The second example of methods of teaching the meaning 
of chemical change reads as follows : 

Introdicctory . Those things which are most familiar to us are 
apt to be regarded with least wonder and to occasion the least 
thought. Take, for example, the changes included under the head 
of fire. Unless we have studied these changes with care, what can 
we make of them } We see substances destroyed by fire. They 
apparently disappear. We feel the heat produced by the burning. 
We know that this heat disappears, and we have nothing left in 
the place of the substance burned. Take as another example the 
rusting of iron. We all know that iron when exposed to moist air 
undergoes a serious change, becoming covered with a reddish-brown 
substance which we call rust. If the piece of iron is comparatively 
thin and it is allowed to lie in the air long enough, it will be com- 
pletely changed to the reddish-brown substance and no iron as 
such will be left. If a spark is brought in contact with gunpowder, 
there is a flash and the powder disappears, dense smoke appearing 
in its place. What are the causes of these remarkable changes ? 
Can we learn anything about them by study ? 

Chemical changes. In those changes which have been referred 
to, the substances changed disappear as such. After the fire, the 
wood or the coal or whatever may have been burned is no longer 
to be found. The gunpowder after the flash is no longer gunpowder. 
The rusted iron is no longer iron, and no matter how long the rust 
is allowed to be unmolested, it will not return to the form of iron. 



2o8 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

Iron may, further, be changed by contact with other substances 
than air so as to lose its properties. Strong vinegar, which contains 
the substance known to chemists as acetic acid, acts upon iron, 
causing it to lose its characteristic properties. . . . Changes of 
this kind, in which the substances disappear and something else 
is formed in their place, are known as chemical changes. . . . 

Physical changes. There are many changes taking place which 
do not affect the composition of substances. Iron, for example, 
may be changed in many ways and still remain iron. It may 
become hotter or colder. . . . (20 : 1-2) 

Method based on common characteristics of fam,iliar 
examples.. — These two examples quoted above furnish us 
with two typical methods of teaching the meaning of new 
abstract or general terms. The first quotation is itself phrased 
entirely in general terms and gives no familiar examples. 
The second quotation, on the other hand, (i) begins with 
familiar examples, (2) uses them to bring out a common 
characteristic (namely, a certain type of change in substances), 
and (3) provides at the end of the process the technical term 
chem^ical changes as a means of designating, thinking about, 
and talking about the characteristic aspect of the situation 
which has been under discussion. 

Example of exercises to test grasp of meaning. — Another 
type of procedure in teaching the meaning of abstract or 
general terms is to give a preliminary discussion consisting of 
a few familiar examples, with a statement of the definition, 
and then to provide a number of exercises in thinking, which 
are expected to be effective in making the meaning clear. 
This procedure is illustrated by the following quotation from 
a textbook on psychology, although no definition is given 
in this case. 

I. Mental Facts 

The world is made up of physical and mental facts. On the 
one hand there are solids, liquids, and gases, plants, trees, and 
bodies of animals, the stars and planets and their movements, the 



REFLECTIVE THINKING 209 

winds and the clouds, and so on through the list of physical things 
and their movements. On the other hand are the thoughts and 
feelings of men and of other animals : ideas, opinions, memories, 
hopes, fears, pleasures, pains, smells, tastes, and so on through 
the list of states of mind. . . . Psychology, the science of mental 
facts or of mind, deals with the latter. 



Exercise 

Which of the following words refer to mental facts ? Which 
refer to physical facts ? Which refer sometimes to mental and 
sometimes to physical facts ? 

Gas, tree, sympathy, money, desire, wish, dog, stone, dreams, 
headache, inventiveness, inch, pound, taste, intelligence, heavy, 
sour, oxygen, electricity, fatigue, pleasure, loud, observe, remem- 
ber, image, teeth. (23 : 1-2) 

Example of sUtdents being assisted and required to dis- 
cover meanings. — Finally, a fourth type of procedure is 
illustrated by the following quotation from the '' Outlines of 
Economics" (see above, p. 171), in which the student's 
attention is called to certain familiar examples and he is 
then required to work out the answers to questions in order 
to discover the meanings for the terms under consideration. 

II. Means of Satisfying Wants 

Means of satisfying wants are called goods. Goods, which may 
be material or nonmaterial, are characterized by the quality of 
utility — the capacity to satisfy wants. 

The following diagram suggests a descriptive classification of 

goods 

Economic goods (have utility, J ^'"^"■'■^ '■'■"■'■ v'-"^'-^^; 

are scarce and appropriable) 1 , ^ . , , . , 

' I jN onmatenal (services) 



Means of satis 
fying wants \ 
— goods 



_. . f material ^ The economist does 

Free goods 1 . ir 

/v. fT ^ 1 f "°^ concern himself 

^ [^nonmaterial J with these 



2IO TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

Questions 

1 . Does every good possess utility ? Is everything which pos- 
sesses utility a good ? 

2. Have the following utility: whisky, a gambler's pack of 
cards, clothes of an obsolete fashion, opium, grand opera, air ? 

3. Which has the greater utility, a diamond or a barrel of 
flour? the rare first edition of an old book or a modern copy, 
better printed and better bound ? Why ? 

4. Are the following appropriable : (a) a loaf of bread ; (b) a 
coal mine ; {c) sunshine ; {d) the Mississippi River ; (e) a public 
park ; (/) a band concert ? What is meant by appropriable ? 

5. Give examples of nonmaterial economic goods, of non- 
material free goods, and of material free goods. 

6. Should the economist be as much concerned with non- 
material as with material economic goods ? Can we say that one 
class is more important than the other ? 

7. Make a list of things which are clearly wealth. 

8. Make a list of things which are clearly not wealth. 

9. Make a list of things concerning which you are in doubt 
as to whether they are wealth, 

10. Define wealth. 

1 1 . Are the following wealth : an ocean steamship ; a pleasure 
yacht ; a ship on the bottom of the ocean ; gold in the mine ; gold 
to a shipwrecked sailor on a desert island ; a wooden leg ; health ; 
eyesight ; a waterfall ; a head full of useful knowledge ; water ? 

12. "A thing may be wealth though it is not useful — for example, 
an Indian arrowhead." Comment. 

13. Is an encyclopedia wealth? among Indians? 

14. Could a thing that was wealth at one time cease to be 
wealth at some other time ? Could the reverse be true ? Why ? 

15. If a coat should go out of style, would it still be wealth ? 

1 6. What distinguishes wealth from services ? 

17. Should we consider services which have a tangible result 
more important than those which do not ? Give several illustra- 
tions of each kind. 

18. From the point of view of the economist, could you accept 
as a definition of wealth (a) means of satisfying wants ; {p) things 



REFLECTIVE THINKING 21 1 

which make for welfare ; (c) material means of satisfying wants ; 
(d) material things upon which labor has been expended ? 

19. Are the following wealth : a courthouse ; a warship ; a city 
hall ; a public library ? 

20. How do you distinguish between social wealth and private 
wealth ? Does social wealth include more than private wealth ? 

2 1 . When a United States gold certificate is destroyed, is wealth 
destroyed ? 

22. Is a railroad bond wealth ? Is a patented invention ? a fire- 
insurance policy ? 

23. Suppose a new source of mechanical power should become 
available at one fourth the cost of steam power. What would be 
the effect on wealth in general ? Would any individuals be made 
less wealthy by the new discovery ? 

24. If wealth increases, will there be greater well-being? What 
is the relation of wealth to well-being ? 

25. " To be wealth a thing must be scarce." Is that equivalent 
to saying that the less we have of things, the better off we are ? 
What do you mean by scairel 

26. Is a man's wealth measured by the number or bulk or 
weight of his possessions or by their money value ? Is a scarce 
article likely to command a higher price than one that is common ? 
Does this imply that wealth is increased by scarcity of goods } 

27. Should you accept as true the statement that the scarcity 
of certain desirable articles, such as jewels, may enhance the com- 
parative wealth of an individual, but that general welfare is pro- 
moted by abundance of the commodities which people desire ? 
Why? (17: 4-6) 

An excellent opportunity for comparing three lessons of 
different types on the same topic is afforded in Thorndike's 
*' Principles of Teaching" (pp. 167-170). The topic is 
Tense in grammar, (i) The first lesson merely gives the 
definitions, with few examples, and at the end provides a list 
of questions. The answers to these are the statements in the 
paragraph that has preceded them, in exactly the same order. 
Such a lesson merely provides for the verbatim learning of 
general statements that are not understood. (2) The second 



212 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

lesson gives examples first, then the names of the various 
tenses and some abstract discussion of inaccuracies in using 
some of the technical terms, such as prese7it tense. (3) The 
third lesson begins with familiar examples and sets questions 
which require the student to discover the various ways in 
which verbs may be used to indicate differences in time. It 
then gives the technical terms to designate the different 
tenses and provides practice in picking out and using verbs 
in different tenses. 

General questions concerning best method to use. — All of 
these examples of methods which we find used in the text- 
books to teach abstract and general meanings and propositions 
suggest the following questions for consideration in connec- 
tion with this type of learning : 

1 . What is the value of familiar examples or illustrations } 

2. What is the value of analytical discussion by the teacher 
versus analytical study and discovery by the pupils } 

3. What is the value of a definition? Is it necessary? 
Should it come before or after the meaning has been ac- 
quired ? Should it be phrased in technical language or in 
ordinary language ? 

In order to secure some light on these questions, we shall 
discuss the nature of the process of learning abstract and 
general meanings. 

Untutored method of learning may contain suggestions. — 
A brief discussion of the way in which general meanings or 
abstractions are acquired in ordinary life may throw some 
light on the best procedure to be followed in teaching. I say 
may because the best or most economical and effective proc- 
ess of learning under instruction might differ very greatly 
from the natural, untutored process. 

Abstracting is a process of selecting a single aspect for 
separate attention. — For our purposes the process of ab- 
straction or abstracting may be thought of as getting ac- 
quainted with some aspect of a situation apart from its other 



REFLECTIVE THINKING 213 

aspects. The discussion of the meaning of chemical changes 
given above would serve as one example. In that discussion 
the attention was directed to one phase of various situations 
(iron rusting, powder exploding, etc.), namely, the phase 
'' change of substance." This phase may be spoken of as the 
abstracted element. The ordinary meaning of the term to 
abstract, namely, ''to withdraw," ''to separate," "to take 
away," suggests the character of the psychological process. 
The abstracted element is also spoken of as general because 
it is (or similar manifestations are) found in many situations 
or because knowledge of it may be used in various situations. 
Thus, chemical change may be an abstracted aspect of one 
situation or of many situations. 

Learning the bacterial aspects of zvater is an exa^nple. — 
As an example of learning a new abstraction in ordinary life 
we may imagine a party of canoeists who are choosing a 
camping site in a country where there are a number of mining 
camps, and are considering whether water from a certain 
brook is fit to drink. Various characteristics of the water 
may be taken up in turn for consideration. Each of these 
may be considered as an abstracted element. One person 
might focus his attention on pieces of bark or leaves floating 
in the water and say it was unfit on that account. Another 
might select its murkiness as the aspect for emphasis. An- 
other might emphasize its coolness. A sanitary engineer 
might disregard all of these and say that the only aspect 
of importance is whether the water contains germs of 
disease, and hold that the thing to do is to trace it to its 
source or to examine the possibility of the watershed being 
contaminated. 

For some member of the party the idea " germ aspect of 
water " may be a new abstraction — one that has never been 
brought to his attention before. Perhaps he has never heard 
before of germs or of the part played by them in disease. In 
this case we have the beginning of the process of learning a 



214 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

new abstraction. If he is not particularly inquisitive, he may 
not ask any questions, and his notion of the abstracted ele- 
ment ''disease germs" remain simply ''what the sanitary 
engineer said about that brook water." Later in his life 
another reference to disease germs may be experienced ; 
perhaps he will read in a sign in the street cars that " spit- 
ting is dangerous ; it spreads disease germs." He may then 
recall the statement about the brook water and have now a 
conception of " germs in brook water and spread by spitting 

— dangerous." Gradually, as he has more experiences, he 
may get a fairly good conception of disease germs, from the 
standpoint of practical behavior, as " things to be avoided." 
He may have, however, no acquaintance with them as exist- 
ing separately ; they are simply abstract aspects of various 
situations, such as drinking water, sputum, milk, tuberculosis, 
etc. They are simply aspects that he has heard talked about ; 
he has no clear notion of them as objects ; he does n't know 
what they look like, how they live, how they grow and 
subdivide, whether they are plants or animals or minerals ; 
yet for practical purposes he may have a fairly adequate 
conception of them. 

School expedites process and stresses technical meanings. 

— The above description is typical of the way in which we 
acquire many of our abstractions, or general notions in daily 
life. When we come to consider the acquisition of these ab- 
stractions in school, however, we are met by two differences : 
(i) It is desirable to shorten the time for learning the abstrac- 
tion ; hence experiences containing the aspect in question are 
usually presented in fairly rapid succession. (2) Most teachers 
think that it is important to proceed at once to teach the con- 
ception of the abstracted aspect that the scientist has who 
specializes in the related field. 

May expedite by inte?isive study of a fezv typical examples. 

— The expediting of the process of learning abstractions, by 
seeing that the student gets, in a brief, condensed period of 



REFLECTIVE THINKING 215 

time, experiences which would otherwise be scattered over a 
long period, is one of the chief functions of the school. It 
has led, however, to the danger of assuming that the all- 
important thing is the providing of a large member of experi- 
ences or examples, from which it is expected that the student 
will derive an adequate conception of the abstracted element. 
It is probably more effective to increase and then condense 
the experiences by providing for an intensive study of d^feiv 
cases, with their manifold relationships and ramifications, 
than to spend the same amount of time on the superficial 
study of a large number of cases. 

To continue to use the example about the party of canoe- 
ists and the disease germs in the brook water, if the sanitary 
engineer desired to give the other members of the party a 
better notion of germs, or bacteria, he might pursue the 
matter as follows : Suggesting that mining camps are located 
on some of the brooks but not on others, he might lead them 
to explore the watershed to determine which brooks were 
probably safe and which were not. He might then take 
samples of water from a safe brook and an unsafe one and 
ask members of the party to call at his office next day to 
look at them under the microscope. He might then succeed 
in demonstrating the presence of the colon bacillus as a sign 
of the presence of human excreta in the unsafe water. From 
experience he could cite examples of epidemics clearly due 
to contaminated water supply, and could show, by means of 
data concerning decreased typhoid rate, the beneficial results 
of installing city systems to provide filtered, or pure, water. 
Then other phases of camping which involve bacteria could 
be brought in, such as the use of canned milk, the effects of 
flies, the necessity of disposing of the garbage, the care of 
wounds. Thus, always taking as his point of departure some 
familiar, real, and typical situation, it would be possible to 
bring about a fair understanding of the practical aspects of 
bacteriology in relation to health. 



2i6 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

Psychological jiLstiftcation of the type method. — The psy- 
chological principles at the basis of this intensive study of 
typical cases are presented by Dewey as follows : 

In the process of comparison the teacher must avert the dis- 
traction that ensues from putting before the mind a number of 
facts on the same level of importance. Since attention is selective, 
some one object normally claims thought and furnishes the center 
of departure and reference. This fact is fatal to the success of 
the pedagogical methods that endeavor to conduct comparison on 
the basis of putting before the mind a row of objects of equal 
importance. In comparing, the mind does not naturally begin 
with objects a, b, c, d, and try to find the respect in which they 
agree. It begins with a single object or situation more or less 
vague and inchoate in meaning, and makes excursions to other 
objects in order to render understanding of the central object con- 
sistent and clear. The mere multiplication of objects of compari- 
son is adverse to successful reasoning. Each fact brought within 
the field of comparison should clear up some obscure feature or 
extend some fragmentary trait of the primary object. 

In short, pains should be taken to see that the object on which 
thought centers is typical-^ material being typical when, although 
individual or specific, it is such as readily and fruitfully suggests 
the principles of an entire class of facts. No sane person begins 
to think about rivers wholesale or at large. He begins with one 
river that has presented some puzzling trait. Then he studies other 
rivers to get light upon the baffling feature of this one, and at the 
same time he employs the characteristic traits of his original object 
to reduce to order the multifarious details that appear in connection 
with other rivers. This working back and forth preserves unity of 
meaning while protecting from monotony and narrowness. Con- 
trast, unlikeness, throws significant features into relief, and these be- 
come instruments for binding together into an organized or coherent 
meaning dissimilar characters. The mind is defended against the 
deadening influence of many isolated particulars and also against 
the barrenness of a merely formal principle. Particular cases and 
properties supply emphasis and concreteness ; general principles 
convert the particulars into a single system. (5: 210-211) 



REFLECTIVE THINKING 21/ 

Examples of the type method with exceptio7is. — Practical 
examples of the type method advocated in this quotation have 
already been described in connection with the selection of 
subject matter. (Review pages 73-78 above.) The examples 
of general meanings cited there (''Italian humanist," ''irri- 
gation projects," and type forms in zoology and botany) are 
all cases where new experiences need to be provided in con- 
siderable quantity or a long process of analysis carried out. 
In some cases, such as the meaning of chemical changes, 
where the student already has a wealth of experiences upon 
which to draw and the element in question can be abstracted 
very quickly in each case, the teacher would be justified in 
presenting a number of examples in rapid succession. 

'* From concrete to abstract '' is difficult to define. — The 
phrase "proceeding from the concrete to the abstract" is 
often used in connection with the discussion of learning ab- 
stractions, but unfortunately its meanings remain so various, 
even after it has been carefully studied, that it is probably 
advisable not to use it at all. It is often used as synonymous 
with " proceeding from the particular to the general." But 
Dewey points out that unless the particular is familiar it may 
not be concrete, and that general terms, such as atom or 
m.olecule, which are very familiar to a physicist are concrete for 
him. Dewey presents other refinements of the meanings of con- 
crete and abstract which are so puzzling as to justify us in leav- 
ing out the word co7icrete altogether as the opposite of abstract, 
and saying particular fact when that is what we mean, fam- 
iliar fact when that is what we mean, etc. (See 5 : 135-144) 

Particular personal experiences a necessary basis for ab- 
stractions. — The necessity of particular experiences as the 
basis of learning general or abstract meanings is so commonly 
admitted as to need little comment. Thus, Dewey says : 

A blind man can never have an adequate understanding of the 
meaning of color and 7'ed ; a seeing person can acquire the knowledge 
only by having certain things designated in such a way as to fix 



2i8 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

attention upon some of their qualities. This method of delimit- 
ing a meaning by calling out a certain attitude toward objects [the 
attitude of disregard for some qualities and selection of others] 
may be called denotative or indicative. It is required for all sense 
qualities — sounds, tastes, colors — and equally for all emotional 
and moral qualities. The meanings of honesty^ sympathy., hatred., 
fear., must be grasped by having them presented in an individual's 
first-hand experience. . . . However advanced the person is in 
knowledge or scientific training, understanding of a new subject or 
a new aspect of an old subject must always be through these acts 
of experiencing directly the existence or quality in question. (5 : 132) 

Advanced teachers fail to appreciate the necessity of par- 
ticulars. — The danger of advanced teachers overlooking this 
necessity of detailed personal experience, together with the 
psychological explanation of the fact, is brought out by James 
in the following quotation : 

As the art of reading (after a certain stage in one's education) 
is the art of skipping, so the art of being wise is the art of knowing 
what to overlook. The first effect, on the mind, of growing culti- 
vated is that processes once multiple get to be performed by a 
single act. Lazarus has called this the progressive condensation 
of thought. But in the psychological sense it is less a condensation 
than a loss, a genuine dropping out and throwing overboard of 
conscious content. Steps really sink from sight. An advanced 
thinker sees the relations of his topics in such masses and so in- 
stantaneously that when he comes to explain to younger minds, it 
is often hard to say which grows the more perplexed, he or the 
pupil. In every university there are admirable investigators who 
are notoriously bad lecturers. [One] reason is that they never 
spontaneously see the subject in the minute, articulate way in 
which the student needs to have it offered to his slow reception. 
They grope for the links, but the links do not come. Bowditch, 
who translated and annotated Laplace's ^^ Mechanique Celeste," said 
that whenever his author prefaced a proposition by the words " it 
is evident," he knew that many hours of hard study lay before 
him. (6 Vol. II : 369-370) 



REFLECTIVE THINKING 219 

Expository teaching based on previous real experiences. — 
After individuals have accumulated a stock of real, personal 
experiences, it is often possible to build up new meanings 
from these in an indirect or expository way. Dewey describes 
this method as follows : 

Given a certain store of meanings which have been directly or 
denotatively marked out, language becomes a resource by which 
imaginative combinations and variations may be built up. A color 
may be defined, to one who has not experienced it, as lying between 
green and blue ; a tiger may be defined (that is, the idea of it made 
more definite) by selecting some qualities from known members of 
the cat tribe and combining them with qualities of size and weight 
derived from other objects. Illustrations are of the nature of [such] 
expository definitions ; so are the accounts of meanings given in a 
dictionary. By taking better-known meanings and associating them, 
the attained store of meanings of the community in which one 
resides is put at one's disposal. But in themselves these definitions 
are second-hand and conventional ; there is danger that, instead of 
inciting one to effort after personal experiences that will exemplify 
and verify them, they will be accepted on authority as substitutes, 
(5: 132) 

Recalled real experiences sofnetimes more useful than new 
experiences. — The danger which Dewey mentions in the 
last sentence should not blind us to the large possibilities 
which lie in this indirect or expository method of teaching 
new abstract or general meanings. It possesses enormous 
possibilities in many subjects and is illustrated in the example 
of teaching the meaning of chemical changes and physical 
changes described above. In this case most students already 
possess a thoroughly adequate store of real experiences. All 
that is necessary is to revive these in imagination and examine 
them from a new point of view. Many teachers, in their reac- 
tion against the teaching of mere words that are not under- 
stood, have gone to the extreme of providing laboratory work, 
pictures, excursions, etc. in cases where they are not necessary. 



220 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

The meaning which is to be taught could often be reached 
more economically and by more real reflective thought on the 
part of the pupil by recall and reconstruction of familiar ex- 
periences. This process possesses the additional advantage of 
keeping the meaning related to the everyday affairs instead 
of connecting it merely with artificially produced laboratory 
conditions. Students very often fail to appreciate the fact 
that the general and abstract meanings acquired in labora- 
tory courses are exampled in daily life. 

Active discovery and expression necessary for poor stu- 
dents. — The discussion since page 217 has concerned largely 
the extent to which real experiences are necessary as a basis 
of acquiring an adequate understanding of abstract and general 
meanings. The second problem noted on page 212 concerned 
the relative merits of analytical discussion by the teacher and 
analytical thought by the pupils. Practically the same distinc- 
tions apply here as were stated on pages 202-203 in connec- 
tion with problem-solving. The superior student will probably 
get the meaning adequately by following the discussion by the 
teacher or in the textbook, provided this is properly related 
to particular and familiar experiences. The poor student will 
need to have opportunities to analyze, to discover, to express 
himself, and to be corrected. 

Exact definitions. Not necessary in all thinkmg. — The 
third problem raised on page 212 concerns the place and 
value of an exact definition of an abstract or general term in 
learning its meaning. The first point to notice in this con- 
nection is that a person may have a very usable meaning 
for a term and not be able to define it in exact language. 
Thus, Welton says : 

It is . . . dear that inability to give a precise definition is by no 
means a sign of inability to think and speak correctly and intelli- 
gently of the matter in hand, so far as we require to do so in ordi- 
nary life. Many people are surprised to find they cannot give an 
accurate definition of such common terms as table or cow if they 



Deflective thinking 221 

are called upon to do so. It does not follow that they know nothing 
about tables and cows. They may even be carpenters or graziers 
and so know a great deal about them, and yet be unable to define 
their names, though they could give a more or less full and accurate 
description of the things to which the name applies. (8 : 228) 

An example of this fact is the meaning of bacteria. In 
the incident described above on page 213 the canoeist was 
supposed to acquire the same practical conception of bacteria 
that a large part of the general public has at the present time. 
Yet in neither case is the scientific definition known. It is 
doubtful whether the definition which is given below would 
contribute very much to the practical value of their conception. 

Bacterium. A microscopic vegetable organism, belonging to the 
class Algae, usually in the form of a jointed rodlike filament, 
and found in putrefying organic infusions. Bacteria are destitute 
of chioraphyll and are the smallest of microscopic organisms. 

Further examples are given by Welton, who says : 

Similarly, a child would probably not receive much assistance 
in understanding what netivork is from the definition given by 
Dr. Johnson : " anything reticulated or decussated at equal inter- 
vals, with interstices at the intersections." Such examples make 
it clear that a pedantic insistence on definition may do much to 
hinder the comprehension of meaning. . . . To see a net and think 
out its purpose gives more content to the idea than to learn not 
only such a definition as that of Dr. Johnson but any definition 
that could in all probability be framed. (8 : 233) 

Exact definitions necessary in iLsing techfiical terms. — 
Keeping in mind these preliminary cautions concerning the 
overemphasis on definitions, let us consider briefly the neces- 
sity and value of exact definitions in some cases. The dis- 
cussion of the meaning of the word concrete, given above on 
page 217, furnishes a good example. For ordinary discourse 
the vague meaning of this term which is current is sufficient. 
When we come to a scientific issue, however, such as the 



222 TEACHING IN HIGH SCH(?OLS 

pedagogical principle of proceeding from the concrete to the 
abstract, it is evident that a much more exact defining of 
the term is necessary. Similarly with many other pedagogi- 
cal formulae. '' Development of faculties " is one of these. 
This phrase is used in four different senses in pedagogical 
discussions : namely, as meaning (i) the appearance of an 
instinct or capacity, such as the instinct to walk ; (2) the 
natural maturing or inner growth of an instinct or capacity, 
such as the change in a boy's voice at adolescence ; (3) the 
training of a special capacity, such as multiplication in mathe- 
matics ; (4) the training of some general capacity or power, 
such as the judgment or the memory. When one reads that 
''the aim of education is the development of faculties" he 
cannot be sure which of these meanings of development is 
intended. The term appreciation furnishes another example. 
In pedagogical discussions this term is used vaguely and often 
indiscriminately to designate both aesthetic enjoyment and 
logical understanding — two processes which are very differ- 
ent. Yet it is often impossible to tell from the context in a 
given case which meaning the author has in mind. Concern- 
ing such a situation Dewey says : 

A constant source of misunderstanding and mistake is indefinite- 
ness of meaning. Through vagueness of meaning we misunderstand 
other people, things, and ourselves ; through its ambiguity we dis- 
tort and pervert. . . . Vagueness disguises the unconscious mixing 
together of different meanings, and facilitates the substitution of 
one meaning for another, and covers up the failure to have any 
precise meaning at all. It is the aboriginal logical sin — the source 
from which flow most bad intellectual consequences. (5 : 129-130) 

Tech7iical meanings secured by arbitrary restriction. — It 
is in the study of such subjects as grammar, mathematics, 
physics, chemistry, biology, economics, psychology, law, etc. 
that the exact definition of terms as they will be used in each 
specialized field is especially important. Within each subject, 



REFLECTIVE THINKING 223 

more or less arbitrary restrictions are placed upon the mean- 
ings of the technical terms used, in order that they may always 
have the same significance. The following terms illustrate the 
contrast between the loose, inclusive meaning of a given term 
in ordinary conversation and the restricted meaning of the 
same term in a given science : In geometiy : line, surface, 
square, circle. In psychology : sensation, feeling. In eco- 
nomics: wealth, hi physics : work, sound, heat, tempera- 
ture, mass. In order that the student may think clearly and 
progress surely in these subjects, it is almost absolutely neces- 
sary that he learn the exact definitions of these words. Thus, 
instead of confusing mass with volnnie he must learn that 
''mass means the quantity of matter that a body contains." 
In psychology, instead of using sensation vaguely for almost 
any kind of experience, he must confine it to "consciousness of 
qualities or conditions either of things or of one's own body." 
Clearness aftd p7'ecision are attribntes of good definitions. 
— In formulating a definition it is important to phrase it in 
such language that it can be easily understood and at the 
same time be precise or true to the facts. That is, clearness 
and precision are two of the most important qualities of good 
definitions. A good example of lack of clearness is the defi- 
nition of network, quoted above on page 221. It is often dif- 
ficult to secure a definition that is clear and at the same time 
precise. For example, consider the following definition : ''To 
multiply one number, called the multiplicand, by another, 
called the multiplier, is to use the multiplicand as we must 
use unity to obtain the multiplier." This definition may be 
precise, but its meaning must be puzzled out by the high- 
school pupils. In reaching this definition the author of the 
algebra from which it is quoted criticizes the ordinary simpler 
definition in the following words : 

Multiplication has been defined in arithmetic as the process of 
taking one number, called the multiplicand, as many times as there 
are units in the other, called the multiplier. It is evident that this 



224 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

definition holds only when the multiplier is a whole number, and 
fails when it is a fraction. 

Thus, to multiply 7 by 2^ would mean to take 7 as many times 
as there are units in 2^, that is, 2^ times. This is impossible. One 
cannot do a thing 2^ times. (22 : 3) 

Get the meaning first, then add the symbol. — One further 
point in connection with definitions remains to be noted. This 
is the possibility of reversing the usual form of statement and 
giving the meaning, or a meaning, first and adding the term 
at the end. To take an example that is easily understood, 
consider the first teaching about nouns in the elementary 
school. At first only names of common objects are taken up. 
The children get an idea of this class of words, that is, names 
of objects. The teacher now wishes to introduce the tech- 
nical term noim, in order to have a symbol for talking 
about this class of words and to help the children in thinking 
about it as a class. She ordinarily does this by giving the 
definition in this form : '' Nouns are names of things." But 
this is objectionable, since the statement is not precise or true. 
The difficulty would be obviated, however, if she began with 
a statement of the general meaning which the children 
have acquired, that is, '' names of things," and then added 
the new symbol nouns. The statement would then stand 
'' Names of things are nouns." In this form it is simple ; it 
represents adequately the meaning which the children have 
acquired ; it is true ; and it can be expanded to include other 
kinds of nouns as these are learned. Unfortunately the form 
of statement which we find in a dictionary has influenced our 
practice so much that in many simple cases teachers will 
struggle to construct a complete definition, which is necessary 
when the term to be defined comes at the beginning of the 
statement, instead of being satisfied for the time being with 
an incomplete statement in the form suggested. Moreover, 
the ordinary practice distorts the purpose of the term, or symbol, 
at the stage of learning that has been reached. Its purpose 



REFLECTIVE THINKING 225 

is to make definite and portable a meaning that has been 
worked out. The stress should be placed on this meaning 
rather than on the more complete meaning which may be 
developed later. If the practice advocated here is followed, 
there will be less memorizing of definitions as mere words 
without meanings. 

Summary of principles of teaching abstract and general 
meanings. — The above discussion has been concerned al- 
most entirely with abstract and general terms and very little 
with abstract and general propositions, of which examples were 
given above on page 206. The same general principles, how- 
ever, would apply in the latter case. We may summarize our 
main points as far as they concern abstract and general terms 
as follows : 

1. In practical life a new abstract or general meaning is commonly 
learned by having attention called to it at first in connection with some 
practical issue in a single situation. Later other experiences modify and 
expand the meaning derived from this first experience. 

2. In teaching such meanings in school it is important to begin with 
particular personal experiences in the same way, and usually to study in- 
tensively at first one example of the general class in question. 

3. In many cases students already possess a wealth of familiar per- 
sonal experiences which can be recalled, and it is not necessary to provide 
new ones. The old ones may be analyzed and the abstract aspect under 
consideration brought to light. 

4. For poor or mediocre students active analytical thought and dis- 
covery by the student is desirable. Superior students may learn readily 
from an exposition by the teacher or in a textbook. 

5. While considerable effective thinking can be done in terms that 
the thinker cannot define exactly, in scientific thinking it is necessary to 
have terms defined in a precise way. 

6. In teaching, a definition should consist of a summary formulation 
of the meaning which the student has developed up to date. This mean- 
ing may keep expanding as thought progresses. 

Same principles apply in teaching abstract and general 
propositions. — The above principles, together with some of 
those set forth in the preceding section on reflective thinking, 



226 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

would also govern the teaching of abstract and general prop- 
ositions ; for example, rules in mathematics and physics, 
laws of growth in biology, the laws of climate in geography, 
propositions concerning the distribution of population in 
sociology, etc. 

Generalising is a constant process, not a final step. — In 
this connection it is desirable to add only one further qualifi- 
cation. This is practically an elaboration of paragraph 6 on 
page 225, and serves as a corrective to the notion often im- 
plied in books on methods of teaching, that generalization is 
almost the last step in the process of reaching a refined and 
exact general meaning or conclusion. The opposite and true 
notion is expressed by Dewey as follows : 

Generalization is not a separate and single act ; it is rather a 
constant tendency and function of the entire discussion or recitation. 
Every step forward toward an idea that comprehends, that explains, 
that unites what was isolated and therefore puzzling, generalizes. 
. . . The factor of formulation, of conscious stating, involved in 
generalization should also be a constant function, not a single 
formal act. Definition means essentially the growth of a meaning 
out of vagueness into definiteness. Such final verbal definition as 
takes place should be only the culmination of a steady growth in 
distinctness. In the reaction against ready-made verbal definitions 
and rules the pendulum should never swing to the opposite extreme, 
that of neglecting to summarize the net meaning that emerges from 
dealing with particular facts. Only as general summaries are made 
from time to time does the mind reach a conclusion or a resting 
place, and only as conclusions are reached is there an intellectual 
deposit available in future understanding. (5 : 211) 

Generalizations aid in solving personal and social problems. 

— It is desirable to keep in mind the relation of the discussion 
in this section of the chapter to the whole chapter and to the 
first section. The whole topic of the chapter is Reflective 
Thinking. The aspect of this topic which was discussed in sec- 
tion one was the solution of problems. The aspect discussed 



REFLECTIVE THINKING 22/ 

in this, the second section, is the acquiring of abstract and 
general meanings. The chief practical reason for acquiring 
these meanings is that they may help in solving problems. As 
James says, '* The whole function of conceiving, of fixing and 
holding fast to meanings, has no significance apart from the 
fact that the co7iceiveris a creatttre ivith partial purposes and 
private ends!' (6 Vol. I : 482.) The ways in which general 
meanings may help in solving problems or attaining the private 
ends mentioned by James will be discussed briefly in the fol- 
lowing paragraph. This is partly a repetition of the discussion 
on pages 190-192, but from a slightly different point of view. 
By identifying a particular problem as an example of a 
known class. — An abstraction, or general notion, may be used 
in two ways. First, when confronted by some particular diffi- 
culty or problem, if it can be identified as an example of some 
general class which is already understood, the methods of 
dealing with it are easily determined. For example, recently 
it has been discovered that many diseases are transmitted by 
insects. In connection with this discovery a technique of 
guarding against and destroying insects has been developed, 
and the public is being educated to believe in it and use it. 
Now, in investigating the cause of some particular disease the 
medical investigator has the advantage of knowing that it may 
be spread by insects, and he keeps this possibility in mind as 
he makes his experiments. If he succeeds in discovering and 
proving that it is carried by a certain insect in a certain way, 
then the methods that have been developed for handling simi- 
lar cases may be used. That is, as soon as he can isolate and 
identify the abstract phase of the disease, '' carried by insects 
in certain ways," he can take advantage of all the general 
knowledge that has been developed about the class '' diseases 
spread by insects." The notable examples of this class are 
yellow fever spread by the Stegomyia mosquito ; malaria 
spread by the Anopheles mosquito ; typhoid spread partially 
by house flies ; plague spread by rats and fleas. 



228 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

By inferring the practical corollaries of the general fact, — 
The second way in which an abstraction, or general princi- 
ple, may prove useful in reflective thinking is by inferring 
what further consequences must follow from it. For example, 
suppose it is shown that original nature (inborn characteris- 
tics almost entirely hereditary in character) is a very powerful 
factor in determining an individual's achievements — that it 
determines his possibilities and sets definite limitations be- 
yond which he cannot go. Given this as a starting point, the 
following practical corollaries might be inferred : (<^) In the 
choice of vocations the most important thing is to determine 
first the individual's inborn capacities, (b) The school should 
provide a many-sided curriculum in order to determine students' 
capacities, {c) It should provide opportunities for students to 
specialize, id) It should have a flexible system of promotion 
which would not retard a student because of lack of capacity 
in some special line, ie) The improvement of society depends 
to a large extent on the selection of the better individuals to 
have descendants. (/) Idiots, imbeciles, etc. should not be 
permitted to have descendants. Thus, starting from a single 
fundamental general principle, a host of further practical 
consequences may be inferred. 

Summary of discussion of reflective thinking. — Thus we 
are brought back to the issues with which the chapter opened. 
The discussion began with an analysis of the part played by 
problem-solving in everyday life and an account of the pro- 
visions for such mental activity in schools. The reflective 
solution of a problem was then shown to involve the selection, 
from a mass of associated ideas, of those which seemed to bear 
upon the problem. Success in this process was shown to de- 
pend upon fertility of suggestion, critical evaluation of sug- 
gested methods from the standpoint of the problem in hand, 
and care in organizing the suggestions which were accepted. 
In connection with the discussion of fertility of suggestion it 
was shown that the recall of general principles which might 



REFLECTIVE THINKING 229 

apply to the particular case in question is one effective method 
of solving problems. The ways in which these general prin- 
ciples or abstract and general meanings are learned were dis- 
cussed in detail in the second section of the chapter, and the 
pedagogical principles which were developed were summarized 
on page 225 . Finally, examples were given to show how these 
general ideas, when once acquired, do contribute to the solution 
of practical social problems.^ 

This will conclude our discussion of the third type of 
learning, namely, reflective thinking. This is the type that 
is most difficult to understand, but the one that pedagocical 
writers have often approached with the most assurance. 
Some of the books which deal with methods of teaching 
have been entirely devoted to a discussion of the teaching of 
lessons involving reflective thinking, and have completely 
neglected to discuss the other four types of learning which 
we outlined on pages 96-97 and which are of fundamental 
importance in social life and in the school. The first of these 
types of learning which we discussed was acquiring motor 
skill, as in learning gymnastic feats and acquiring vocal 
skill. The second type was associating symbols and mean- 
ings, especially in the learning of a foreign vocabulary. In 
the next chapter we shall take up the fourth type of learn- 
ing that is to be considered, namely, acquiring habits of 
enjoyment, which is prominent in the arts and in sports 
and games. 

1 Some instructors may wonder at two omissions from this chapter; 
namely, (i) of the distinction between inductive and deductive thinking, 
and (2) of the Herbartian five formal steps. The part played by induction 
and deduction in any example of thinking is so difficult to understand that 
its introduction into the discussion is of no help to the student. In fact, if 
Dewey's characterization of induction in connection with the burglar ex- 
ample on page 82 of his " How We Think " is correct, most of the peda- 
gogical discussions use the term deduction incorrectly. Similarly, a study 
of the Herbartian formal steps does not contribute to an understanding 
of the thought process. As a method of planning lessons these steps will 
be discussed in Chapter XXL 



230 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES 

Scientific discussions, i . Bagley, W. C. The Educative Process. 
(The Macmillan Company, 1905.) Pp. 128-168. Excellent summary 
paragraph in very technical language on page 1 50. See also pp. 284-315 
for practical discussions. 

2. BoNSER, F. G. The Reasoning Ability of Children. (Teachers 
College, 1910.) Excellent investigation based on exact measurements in 
intermediate grades. 

3. CoLViN, S. S. The Learning Process. (The Macmillan Company, 
191 1.) Pp. 295-329. Summary from Dewey's psychological point of 
view, with practical modifications ; by an expert psychologist. 

4. De Garmo, C. Principles of Secondary Education. (The Mac- 
millan Company, 1908.) Vol. II, Processes of Instruction. The whole 
book deals with reasoning, largely from the standpoint of the older tra- 
ditional logic, with many practical examples. 

5. Dewey, J. How We Think. (D. C. Heath & Co., 1910.) A 
masterly treatment. The best reference for mature students. Read the 
whole book several times. Source of many recent discussions. 

6. James, W. Principles of Psychology. (Henry Holt and Com- 
pany, 1 910.) Vol. I, pp. 459-482, on conception; Vol. II, pp. 323- 
360, on reasoning. A classic discussion. Attractive style. Large influ- 
ence on recent thought. 

7. Miller, I. E. The Psychology of Thinking. (The Macmillan 
Company, 1909.) Dewey's theory summarized by one of his students. 

8. Welton, J. The Logical Bases of Education. (The Macmillan 
Company, 1899.) A simple treatment of logic and scientific method. 
Very readable. A wealth of illustrations. Exhibits some influence of 
James. See chaps, viii, ix, x, xiii, xiv, xv, on reasoning. See chap, xvi, 
on definition. 

Practical discussions. See also numbers 14, 15, and 20 below, for 
excellent discussion of problem-solving methods in special subjects. 

9. Charters, W.W. Methods of Teaching. (Row, Peterson & Co., 
revised edition, 1 91 2.) Chaps, xii, xiii, xix, and xx. Dewey's point of view, 
with modifications from older logic. Also influenced by Bagley and 
Thorndike. Criticizes Herbartian formal steps. 

10. Strayer, G. D. The Teaching Process. (The Macmillan Com- 
pany, 191 1.) Chaps. V and vi. Based on Herbartian formal steps, 
with modifications from Dewey, Thorndike, and Bagley. 

11. Thorndike, E. L. Pjincipies of Teaching. (A. G. Seller, 1905.) 
Chaps, ix and x. The best discussion of helping students to reason. 
Has influenced many recent discussions. 



REFLECTIVE THINKING 231 

Other books referred to in the chapter. 12. Galtox, F. Inquiries 
into Human Faculty and its Develo^jnent. (The Macmillan Com- 
pany, 1883.) 

13. Dewey, J. Science as Subject-Matter and as Method. Science, 
January, 1910, Vol. XXXI, pp. 1 21-127. 

14. DuNCALF, F., and Krey, A. C. Parallel Source Problems in 
Mediaval History. (Harper & Brothers, 191 2.) 

15. Keatinge, M. W. Studies in the Teaching of History . (A. and 
C. Black, 1 910.) 

16. Mann, C. R. The Teaching of Physics. (The Macmillan Com- 
pany, 1 91 2.) 

17. Marshall, C. C, Wright, C. W., and Field, J. A. Outlines 
of Econojnics developed as a Series of Problems. (The University of 
Chicago Press, 191 2.) 

18. Newell, L. C. Experimental Chemistry. (D. C. Heath & Co., 
1900.) 

19. Pearson, Karl. The Grammar of Science. (A. and C. Black, 
1911.) 

20. Remsen, I. Introduction to the Sttidy of Chejnistry . (Henry 
Holt and Company, 1893.) 

21. Schultze, a. The Teaching of Mathe?natics in Secondary 
Schools. (The Macmillan Company, 191 2.) 

22. Stone, J. C, and Millis, J. F. Essentials of Algebi'a. (Benj. H. 
Sanborn & Co., 1905.) 

23. Thorndike, E. L. Eleinents of Psychology. (A. G. Seller, 
1905.) 

24. Whewell, W. History of the I)iductive Sciences. (D. Appleton 
and Company, 1901.) Vol. I. 



CHAPTER X 

FORMING HABITS OF HARMLESS ENJOYMENT 

Main points of the chapter. — i. Since training for enjoyment 
of leisure time is one of the ultimate aims of education, the 
methods to be used deserve special consideration. 

2. The examples to be discussed include training in the enjoy- 
ment of sports and games, clubs and parties, dancing, music, 
literature, and the drama. 

3. In discussing music, literature, and the drama we shall avoid 
the use of the term appreciation in order to avoid confusing the 
issues. 

4. We shall also assume that there is no 7iecessary connection 
between the enjoyment of artistic productions and morality, that 
is, the desire and endeavor to work for the common good. 

5. In all lines of enjoyment the educator must plan to develop 
such habits as are practiced by ordinary, well-behaved, cultivated 
people. In literature these include primarily the reading of books 
of fiction and the serious articles and fiction printed in contempo- 
rary magazines. 

6. All selections and activities should be within the range of 
the interests and understanding of the students, and enjoyment 
should characterize every step of the development. 

7. In the case of young people and most adults the relatively 
primitive forms of enjoyment connected with story, color, rhythm, 
melody, action, humor, etc. are more important than those re- 
lated to structure, composition, meter, choice of words, figures 
of speech, technical analysis, etc. The former are just as good 
from the moral standpoint as are the latter. 

8. Among teachers of English there is a very active radical 
movement for the humanizing of the study of literature by re- 
lating it to everyday interests. 

232 



HABITS OF HARMLESS ENJOYMENT 233 

Emotional aspect uppermost in the consideration. — In 

preceding chapters we discussed three types of learning : 
namely, acquiring motor skill, associating symbols and mean- 
ings, and reflective thinking. In this chapter we shall dis- 
cuss a fourth type, namely, forming habits of harmless 
enjoyment or recreation. Examples of this process are 
found in training in enjoying athletic sports, dancing, music, 
drama, books, scenery, statuary, paintings, etc. This type of 
learning is related somewhat to the other types which we 
have discussed, but in some respects it is obviously unlike 
acquiring motor skill or a foreign vocabulary or habits of 
reflective thought. The chief point of difference is in the 
fact that the emotional element, enjoyment, is the chief 
factor, the very starting point for all the consideration and 
discussion. 

Already discussed as an aim and in other connections. — 
The problem of forming habits of enjoyment has already 
been touched upon in earlier chapters in several connections. 
In the chapter on the broadening purposes of high-school 
education, training for harmless enjoyment was included as 
one of the three fundamental aims of the school, the other 
two being good will and social efficiency (economic, civic, 
and domestic) (see p. 17). In the discussion of the proximate 
aims in the same chapter the points made concerning the 
development of abiding many-sided interests are also related 
to the present discussion, since recreational interests, or ha- 
bitual tendencies to reach out after certain forms of enjoy- 
ment, are among the most important of human interests 
(see p. 22). The habit-forming aspect was also referred to 
among the proximate aims (p. 20), and some of the general 
conditions of habit-formation were brought out in the discus- 
sions of association (p. 124) and especially of practice or drifl 
(pp. 1 24-1 53). In the latter connection the importance of the 
influence of spontaneous interest as a factor in the effective 
and economical formation of motor and intellectual habits 



234 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

was emphasized. Since spontaneous interest is so important 
in forming habits of these types, it is obvious that it must be 
of even greater importance in forming habits of enjoyment, 
that is, habits in which the response that is to be connected 
with a given type of situation is emotional in character. 

Widespread recognition of need of training to enjoy lei- 
sure. — The problem of providing harmless forms of recrea- 
tion for Americans is discussed at length by J. P. Garber in 
his Current Educational Activities for 191 1. In the preface 
the editor, commenting on the vocational and recreational 
movements together, says : 

If one were to indicate a [contemporary] movement more radi- 
cally different and yet more largely promising than another, it is 
the general movement that in one form or another endeavors to 
make the school an opportunity not only to study but also to work 
and to play. . . . The vocational propaganda has achieved sub- 
stantial recognition. The recreational activity, deep fraught with 
moral purpose, is steadily sweeping forward. It is just as essen- 
tial to a stable social order that the individual should know how to 
spend his recreational hours as it is [that he should know how] to 
spend his vocational hours. 

In commenting on the failure to provide amusements, 
particularly for adolescent boys and girls, the author quotes 
from Jane Addams, of Hull House, Chicago, as saying : 

We have no sense of responsibility in regard to the pleasures of 
young people, and continually forget that amusement is stronger 
than vice and that it alone can stifle the lust for it. We see all 
about us much vice which is merely a love for pleasure " gone 
wrong " — the illicit expression of what might have been not only 
normal and recreative pleasure but an instrument in the advance 
of higher social morality. (1 : 39) 

Among the recent endeavors to provide legitimate recrea- 
tional opportunities Garber discusses the establishment of play- 
grounds, the use of schools as recreation centers, supervised 



HABITS OF HARMLESS ENJOYMENT 235 

dances in schools and other pubUc places of recreation, 
theaters, Sunday amusements, athletic contests, and dramatic 
activities. He considers these from the standpoint of rural 
needs as well as from that of urban needs. 

Phases of high-school activity involved. — In the case of 
high-school pupils the most important subjects which aim to 
train for enjoyment are literature (including the study of the 
drama) and music. Less important, but finding recognition 
in many high schools, are social training through clubs or 
societies and through school or class parties with dancing, and 
training which provides opportunities for all students to par- 
ticipate in athletic contests. We shall take these up for con- 
sideration in the reverse order from that in which they are 
mentioned in this paragraph. 

Participation in sports and games. Chances for all. — 
The organization in high schools of training for enjoying 
participation in sports and games is important both from the 
standpoint of the present life of high-school students and 
from the standpoint of future adult habits. In most large 
high schools the common practice is to require formal gym- 
nastics of all students, while a few students with special 
physical qualifications or special interests in contests become 
members of the various athletic teams. Usually this situation 
does not develop in many students the habit of enjoying the 
participation in such activities. In a few exceptional high 
schools the principle is adopted that the development of a 
few expert teams for interschool contests is relatively unim- 
portant as compared with the organization of opportunities 
for nearly all students to be participants in sports or games, 
just as most students would be given similar training in the 
enjoyment of literature or music. In order to achieve this 
result the extreme emphasis on formal gymnastics disappears, 
and much attention is given to games and gymnastic and folk 
dancing. These statements apply to the activities for girls 
as well as for boys. By this means supervised recreation is 



236 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

provided, which not only brings into the hves of the students 
at the present time harmless and healthful enjoyment, but 
lays the basis for the continuation of such activities after 
graduation. As the importance of public recreation becomes 
better appreciated, more and more opportunities for adult 
recreation of this type will be provided. Even at the present 
time Y.M.C.A. buildings, social settlements, public play- 
grounds, and public parks with tennis courts and golf courses 
offer inexpensive opportunities for many persons. 

Teacher must secure spiidt of enjoyment. — In the organi- 
zation of athletic instruction of the type described, the per- 
sonality and point of view of the instructor is all-important. 
It is absolutely essential that he have the recreational point 
of view and that he endeavor to secure the spirit of enjoy- 
ment of active participation. Unfortunately many gymnasium 
and athletic instructors take the most formal point of view 
and drive students through drills as if they were a crowd of 
conscripted soldiers or convicts. The natural result is 'that 
students dislike the work instead of enjoying it as play or 
recreation. 

Social activities. Departmental clubs interest many, — 
The organization of the social life of high-school students for 
purposes of enjoyment is a problem to which high- school 
administrators are giving much attention, and one toward 
which the energies of instructors who have capacity for such 
organization might well be directed. The trouble caused by 
the development of fraternities demonstrates the difficulties 
that are encountered when no general official provision is made 
for the social instincts and interests of students and these are 
allowed to find their own means of expression. Under expert 
guidance or suggestion many semidepartmental clubs or 
societies can be established, in which students with specialized 
interests will find the informal sort of association with their 
fellows that they desire and enjoy. These organizations may 
include literary and debating societies, dramatic and musical 



HABITS OF HARMLESS ENJOYMENT 237 

clubs, engineering societies, etc. Instructors who have the 
right temperament and capacity for assisting students in the 
maintenance of such organizations by helpful, friendly sug- 
gestion, without the appearance of domineering control, should 
be made responsible for cooperating with groups of students 
to secure the desired organizations. It is surprising how many 
students, often of the conscientious type, go through school 
absolutely lonely as far as intimate friendly association with 
their fellows is concerned. An hour a week devoted by an 
instructor to the interests of a small social group may bring 
enormous returns in the form of present enjoyment and future 
habits of enjoyment, since this method of securing recreation 
plays a considerable part in the lives of adult men and women 
and may play a larger part if the school provides appropriate 
training. 

Supervised dancing directs 7iatural impulses into harmless 
channels. — One of the most attractive and popular forms 
of enjoyment for adolescents and adults up to a certain age 
is dancing. Nearly everyone who has learned to dance enjoys 
it. On the other hand, many persons dislike receptions, and 
many do not enjoy parties without dancing. To the school, 
dancing presents the same problem that fraternities present. 
If properly supervised opportunities for dancing are not pro- 
vided, many of the students will seek opportunities under 
conditions that are much less desirable and that are often 
positively harmful. Experience in a number of situations in- 
dicates that the school that provides opportunities in this line 
secures much better results than does one that either disregards 
or taboos dancing. From the standpoint of future habits of 
enjoyment the school has the opportunity to introduce many 
students to a form of enjoyment that is based on some of the 
most fundamental characteristics of human nature, and the 
opportunity to develop in all students habits of refinement 
^nd good taste that will offset somewhat the appeal of vulgar- 
xzing tendencies that are occasionally associated with dancing. 



238 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

Supervisor imist have correct standards and temperament. 
— In the organization of dancing as a part of the recreation 
of high-school students the instructors who would be most 
concerned are those of the department of physical education 
and members of other departments who have the personal 
qualifications for dealing with such matters. Here, as in all 
our discussion of training for enjoyment, the individual 
differences between teachers are most fundamental. Just as 
certain instructors, though excellent in ordinary teaching, fail 
miserably in organizing student clubs, so in the organization 
of dancing for recreation, the wrong temperament on the 
part of the teacher may result in failure both from the stand- 
point of enjoyment and from the standpoint of morals. 

In the High School of The University of Chicago the 
organization of the school parties is described in the follow- 
ing quotation from the catalogue : 

Parties. — Every Friday during the autumn and winter, at the 
close of the afternoon session, an informal dance, open to all 
members of the school, is conducted under school supervision. 
These weekly parties have been given for eight years and have 
proved to be most helpful in the school life. Since all receive 
during the regular gymnastic classes the necessary instruction in 
dancing, they come to the parties able to participate on even terms. 
It is the custom of the boys and girls to come individually. No 
cards or programs are permitted. In form, the dance is a modified 
cotillion. Pupils must be prompt in coming and must remain 
throughout the hour. It has come to be the accepted rule of the 
afternoon that no pupil may refuse to dance with another. Public 
courtesy and school comradeship characterize these very simple but 
important social gatherings. 

Music. Two possibilities : participation and listening. — 
Training for the enjoyment of music is rapidly being intro- 
duced into most large high schools. The opportunities pro- 
vided may be divided into two types : namely, (i) training 
through participation in musical performances, and (2) training 



HABITS OF HARMLESS ENJOYMENT 239 

through listening to music. Both types of enjoyment play 
a prominent part in adult life ; therefore training for each 
should be provided. Enjoyment through listening to music 
plays a much larger part in American social life than does 
enjoyment through participation. The possibilities of pro- 
viding opportunities for enjoyment through participation 
have not been taken advantage of as extensively in America 
as in some European countries, notably Germany. 

Premature formal technical methods kill e7tjoyme7it. — 
Here, as in the other phases of enjoyment which we have 
discussed, the point of view, attitude, and method of the in- 
structor is of first importance if present enjoyment or future 
habits of enjoyment are to be secured. Too commonly the 
music periods are regarded by many students as a mild form 
of punishment. A teacher who visited the instruction in 
one high school at the beginning of the year said that the 
freshman sang with some spontaneity and interest, but that 
the other classes had had all of these characteristics killed 
off by the highly formalized, technical methods which the 
instructor used. 

Simple, pidmitive forms of enjoym-ent first : imison sing- 
ing. — Obviously, if students are expected to enjoy singing, 
it is important that the teacher begin with songs adapted to 
the stage of development that they have reached, and that 
abundant opportunity should be given for the enjoyment of 
relatively simple melodies and harmonies before advanced, 
intricate compositions are attacked or much formal technical 
practice attempted. In this connection Farnsworth says : 

If the full aesthetic value of chorus singing is to be attained, it 
is of the utmost importance that the music selected should be the 
gems of the art, and these should be memorized and so learned 
that they can be enjoyed after the student has left school. Unfortu- 
nately the desire to perform ambitious works, such as oratorio 
choruses, not only strains the voices by the extremes of pitch and 
power that such works generally demand, but after the student has 



240 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

left the school he is able to reproduce his pleasure only as he 
becomes a member of a chorus where such works are given. 

If, on the other hand, more attention is paid to unison songs, 
where associations can be made between the text and the melody, 
the student will have within his own power of reproduction beauti- 
ful works, thus adding to his racial inheritance in song the rich 
association of a joyous youth. (7 : 323-324) 

Remarkable results achieved in Richmond, Indiana. — 
The possibilities of developing habits of enjoying music in 
good company and to a considerable extent by continued par- 
ticipation after leaving school are v^ell illustrated in the town 
of Richmond, Indiana, v^hich has a population of about 25,000. 
Here, owing to the able instruction and guidance of one of 
the most competent directors of public-school music in the 
country, the high school with its large auditorium became 
the musical center of the town. 

It is the meeting place of four musical bodies : (i) the People's 
Symphony Orchestra, which meets in this auditorium for four hours' 
rehearsal and public concert every Sunday afternoon from October 
until May ; (2) the People's Chorus, consisting of some two hun- 
dred and fifty voices, which meets regularly one evening per week 
through the year ; (3) the High-School Chorus ; (4) the High- 
School Orchestra, which furnishes the music for the school assem- 
bly meetings and for other school gatherings. (5: 121) 

The first two of these organizations are recruited to a con- 
siderable extent from the graduates of the third and fourth. 
Thus the school has made it possible for a community to de- 
velop a means of providing itself with opportunities for the 
enjoyment of music '' that will offset the attractions of the 
saloon, the beer garden, the dance hall, the low-class music 
halls (so called), and other debasing social agencies, all of which 
use music of some sort as one of the chief sources of attrac- 
tion." P'or a more complete account of the Richmond experi- 
ment see the article by J. F, Bobbitt in the Elementary School 
7>^^/2^r for November, 191 1. 



HABITS OF HARMLESS ENJOYMENT 241 

Training of choice and taste throngh listening. — The dis- 
cussion of musical training up to this point has been concerned 
largely with training through participation in musical perform- 
ances. In recent years, owing to the rapid development of 
mechanical players (various modifications of the phonograph 
and mechanical piano players), courses have developed in high 
schools and colleges which train for the enjoyment of music 
through listening instead of singing or playing. In comment- 
ing on these one authority says : 

If we are to develop a truly musical nation, the child must have 
a wider musical experience than he can ever cover in his own sing- 
ing. He must have good music and much good music presented 
to him through the medium of hearing. Exquisite enjoyment may 
be experienced by contemplating a rose and inhaling its fragrance 
without the slightest knowledge of its structure from the botanist's 
point of view [or of its color or odor from the point of view of the 
painter and psychologist]. In like manner the more attractive pieces 
by the great composers can, if judiciously presented, give great 
pleasure without the slightest knowledge of their structure from 
the theorist's point of view. (8 : loi i) 

Learn to recogjiize, zvhistle, and hnni themes. — In discus- 
sing the administration of such ''acquaintance" courses in 
high schools Farnsworth says : 

No adequate standards of this kind of work have been established 
as yet. Some dwell on the historic and human connections of what 
is being heard ; others go into the analysis of the form ; but per- 
haps the most valuable for the general public and at the same 
time the simplest to manage so that a genuine aesthetic value shall 
result is to have the students hear the works a sufficient number 
of times so that they will be able to whistle or hum the important 
themes. 

Impoi'tance of k?iowing m usical motives. — As music is an 
organic creation, generally based on a few striking motives, to learn 
these motives so thoroughly that they can be readily recognized and 
associated with the works to which they belong would give the 



242 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

result to the student in a nutshell and would guarantee the most 
intelligent enjoyment when these works were heard from great 
orchestras and choruses. Not that some attention, both as to human 
interest, form, and structure, should not accompany such work ; but 
the pupil should be able, when asked if he knows the G-minor 
Fugue of Bach, to have naturally spring into his mind the rollicking 
theme, rather than the fact that the fugue has subject and counter- 
subject, stretto, and pedal point. (7: 326-327) 

Meaning of enjoyment is clear; of appreciation, vague. — In 

the discussion of forming habits of enjoyment or recreation 
up to this point we have considered participation in sports and 
athletic games, social training through clubs and dancing, and, 
finally, the enjoyment of music. In all of these we have been 
able to discuss our subject by confining ourselves to the use 
of the term enjoyment and have purposely avoided the use of 
the term appreciation. This has been done because the term 
enjoyment is relatively clear in its connotation, while the term 
appreciatio7i is one of the most undefined and loosely used 
words to be found in pedagogical discussions. When a per- 
son says he enjoys listening to the sextet from the opera 
'' Lucia," you have a fairly clear idea of what he means, but 
if he says he appreciates the same selection, his statement 
may have any one of the four following meanings : (i) that 
he enjoys listening to it ; (2) that he understands its relation 
to the rest of the opera, or the fine points in its orchestra- 
tion, or some other aspect of it ; (3) that he both enjoys and 
understands it ; (4) that he understands it but does not 
enjoy it. All of these meanings are self-evident, except 
perhaps the fourth, of which the following incident is an 
example. 

One of the best-known professional pianists - gave a per- 
formance in Chicago in which his aim in rendering certain 
selections seemed to be to show that he had so mastered the 
technique of fingering that he could raise his hands to great 
heights and bring them down with enormous force and hit 



HABITS OF HARMLESS ENJOYMENT 243 

the right keys. The result was such janghng sounds from 
the grand piano that one could hardly believe they came 
from the instrument, but suspected that the stage hands were 
dropping scrap iron behind the scenes. The next day one of 
the best musical critics wrote an account of the performance, 
setting forth what seemed to be the performer's purpose, 
and stating that in the critic's opinion the interpretation was 
in many places incorrect, that it was entirely lacking in 
harmony or beauty, and that he found it very unenjoyable. 
Certainly one could not say that this expert critic .failed to 
understand the performance (or to appreciate it, as far as an 
understanding of musical technique is what is meant by 
appreciation), but clearly he did not enjoy it. 

In view of these facts it seems desirable to use the terms 
enjoyment and 7mderstanding as an aid to clearness in our 
thinking, and to avoid the term appreciation. 

Understanding need not improve or intensify enjoyment. 
— This chapter is concerned primarily with enjoyment. It 
is concerned with understanding only to the extent that the 
latter contributes to enjoyment. It is obvious that much 
enjoyment is possible with relatively little understanding. 
Increased understanding may bring enjoyment of new fea- 
tures or aspects, but the new enjoyment need not be any 
better or any keener than the enjoyment with little under- 
standing. For example, contrast the enjoyment of a football 
game by two spectators. The first knows nothing of the fine 
points of the game, but can follow roughly the general trend 
of events and feels enthusiastically happy when his team is 
winning. The second spectator sizes up each play from the 
standpoint of the technique involved. If the team works 
smoothly and plays are handled well, he is pleased ; if poor 
judgment is shown or an unskilled performance given, he 
is disgusted. Evidently his enjoyment is no keener or better 
than that of the first spectator, who is loyally and wildly happy 
over the success of his home team. 



244 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

Confusing understanding and enjoyment common in teach- 
ing literature. — In such simple cases as this the relation 
between enjoying and understanding gives us little trouble 
in our pedagogical considerations. In the ordinary discussions 
by musicians concerning musical training, however, there is 
widespread confusion ; hence, in our brief summary of some 
of the problems of training for the enjoyment of music we 
simply quoted the statements of some of the authorities to 
the effect that considerable cultivated enjoyment is possible 
with relatively little understanding of theory or technique. 
In the next two sources of enjoyment which we shall con- 
sider, namely, literature and the drama, the question of the 
nature, possibilities, and value of the various forms of enjoy- 
ment in each case becomes so vital that we shall enter into 
a somewhat abstract psychological analysis and description 
in order to help us keep our bearings in the pedagogical 
considerations that are to follow. Inasmuch as there is very 
little reliable discussion in this field, I shall quote, with the 
author's permission, an entire five-page article published by 
E. L. Thorndike in the Teachers College Recoi^d in 1901. 
The paragraph headlines are not in the original article, and 
in a number of places I have substituted the word enjoyment 
in brackets for the word appreciation. 

THE ESTHETIC EMOTIONS 

Need a psychological analysis of aesthetic emotions and their 
effects. — If we are to know what we are about when we are 
teaching English literature to boys and girls, we must get some 
rational account of what the aesthetic emotions are and what they 
do to us. Knowledge abdicates and opinion reigns if we ask just 
what the so-called aesthetic effects are and what difference they 
make in one's general character. This is a psychological question, 
to be settled by psychological methods, and it is a shame that, at 
least since Aristotle, the best work and the bulk of the work should 
have been done by literary men who had the data but not the 



HABITS OF HARMLESS ENJOYMENT 245 

means of handling them or of understanding their significance. 
The equipment fit to solve the question is that of a gifted person 
acquainted with psychology and possessed of psychological insight, 
who has studied extensively the effects of literature on people, 
particularly on children, for the nature and functions of the aes- 
thetic emotions will be clear only in the light of their origin and 
development. No such person has appeared with the answer, and 
we must be content with clearing a passage for him in so far as 
present data allow. 

This is no occasion for a treatise on the aesthetic emotions from 
the standpoint of genetic psychology, and no such treatise will be 
attempted. Let us simply try to see clearly what facts we can 
state, as a supplement to the existing material on aesthetic and 
literary criticism, which may assist the intelligent teacher to an 
insight into what happens when students are led to read literature 
ostensibly for aesthetic enjoyment — for fun. 

Three types of enjoyment : of technique, sensory plea stires, sugges- 
tiveness. — First of all, with any given piece of literature, all sorts 
of different things happen in different people. Not only do many 
of them fail to get the aesthetic pleasure intended, but in those 
who do, it takes many forms. Of those who do not, some feel in 
its place bona fide feelings, actual attitudes toward the real world, 
real, not aesthetic, emotions. These may be to them desirable or 
the reverse. Of those who do [get aesthetic pleasure], some feel 
an enjoyment of the technical skill with which the writer has 
secured his effect ; they enjoy the poem as the football expert en- 
joys watching a game, not caring which side advances, unmoved 
by the zeal of combat, influenced only by the skill of the plays, 
the adroitness of the generalship, the technical beauty of the way 
things are done. Some feel the sensory delights of rhythm or 
melody; they enjoy the poem as the artist might enjoy the pro- 
portions of the football player, the grace and ease of his move- 
ments (rare enough in a football player). The majority enjoy 
what is poorly called, for lack of a better word, the suggestiveness 
of the poem, the mood it arouses, the feelings of joy or sadness 
or pity or faith, that are not real joy or sadness but somehow 
are sweet. " It means so much ; it made me feel the thing," they 
say. These are like the spectators who enjoy a football game 



246 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

because men may, and do, get hurt — because they feel, yet with- 
out results to their own profit or loss, the ambition for victory, the 
pluck and catastrophe and recovery. There are, of course, all 
sorts of combinations of these three types. 

Mental responses to literature : ideas, real emotions, enjoyment of 
workmanship, sensoiy pleasures, pseudo-emotions. — It is obvious 
that what we would at first blush call aesthetic appreciation turns 
out to be now one thing, now another, now a complex. Indeed, 
many people, failing to experience any of these three mental con- 
ditions, take definite ideas or ordinary emotional feelings to be 
the aesthetic emotions of which they read. Many a one there is 
who reads his Browning in dead earnest as a sort of philosophy, 
— commentary on human nature and moral guide, — happy to 
get great ideas and feel new hatred of this and love of that, and 
thinks that he gets all there is in the poetry for anyone, and won- 
ders how intelligent people can endure Keats. From this am.- 
biguity of the words esthetic appreciation and (Esthetic emotions has 
arisen much confusion. Let us therefore use the terms ideas, real 
emotions, enjoyme?it of workmaftship, senso?y pleasures, and pseudo- 
emotio7zs to cover the main facts of the mental conditions aroused 
by literature. Of these terms we may further define real diXidpseudo- 
emotio7is. Let us mean by real emotions such feelings as lead us to 
acts appropriate to the situation if real. The countryman at the 
theater who wants to climb on the stage and knock down the vil- 
lain in the play offers an example. Let us mean by pseudo-emotions 
such feelings as do not [lead us to acts appropriate to the situation 
if real]. If we enjoy reading or seeing the last act of " Othello," 
it is because our emotions are not such as to lead us to shriek with 
horror or turn away our eyes from the awful sight. We may now 
secure some profit from the analysis and natural history of these 
various effects. 

Ideas. — The ordinary laws of human nature account for the 
nature of the ideas aroused by works of art, and we have seen 
that in practice the service of literature in presenting ideas and 
arousing ideals has been recognized. 

Real emotions. — The production of real emotions is of two 
sorts. The poem or story may arouse the emotion which the facts 
or events portrayed would if real, or it may arouse some different 



HABITS OF HARMLESS ENJOYMENT 247 

emotion. The example [of the countryman at the theater] already- 
given is of the first sort. The arousal of a high flood of joyous 
excitement by the description of a double duel in the dark is of 
the second sort. The practical problem of when and where it is 
desirable to use literature to induce real emotions is not hard. We 
may merely repeat Professor James's warning against exciting them 
without providing some useful outlet in conduct. . . . We may 
also suggest that the rational man will regulate his emotional atti- 
tude toward the real world by the facts of that world itself rather 
than by second-hand and often distorted pictures of them, and 
that there is some danger in forever wheedling people into being 
wise or good or happy. However, as things go, most of us prob- 
ably will have to be wheedled. 

Enjoyment of woi'krnanship . — The enjoyment of v/orkmanship 
is so rare among young students that nothing need here be said of it. 

Sensory pleasures. — The sensory pleasures are a far less im- 
portant part of [enjoyment] in the case of literature than in the 
case of music, painting, or sculpture. Either because we are born 
with organizations which like certain combinations of sounds, 
lengths, stresses, and pauses, or because these combinations have 
gone with other desirable things, we come to like certain rhythms 
etc. The explanation of those due to our organization will un- 
doubtedly turn out a purely psychological one. The explanation 
of the second sort is a matter of association. 

The sensory pleasures appear early in the child's love of rhythm 
and are molded by precepts to some extent, still more by example. 
The aesthetic education of children in the purely sensory [enjoy- 
ment] of literature can thus begin early. 

Pseudo-emotions. — What, now, of the chief problem in the 
aesthetics of literature — the nature of these pseudo-emotions.'* What 
is the aesthetic pity that is not real pity, the sympathy with the 
hero which does not produce real pain or real tendencies to help 
him ? They are not the real emotions in weaker intensity. On the 
contrary, they may be stronger. They are qualitatively different. 
This difference is not, as has been suggested by some writers, the 
absence of a personal element ; we do not feel real emotions with 
a personal warmth and intimacy, and aesthetic, or, to use our word, 
pseudo-emotions, with the calm of an indifferent spectator. 



248 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

The qualitative difference . . . that one finds by observing him- 
self and questioning other people [is] that the painful quality of 
many real emotions is absent from their pseudo-equivalents — [for 
example], we like to feel pseudo-sorrow. The pseudo-emotions are 
less permanent and therefore more easily modifiable. The tend- 
ency to fatigue and prostration, which is the result of real emo- 
tions, is largely absent in the case of the pseudo-emotions. A man 
tired from the excitement of a fit of rage might go to see " Othello " 
to get rested. 

Enjoyment as conteniplative play. — If we now become genetic 
psychologists for a moment, we may find the key to the real nature 
and function of these emotions ; for they evidently grow out of 
the imaginative play of children. Children systematically and habit- 
ually turn the objects and events of the natural world into means 
for keeping their mental life going. They themselves play the roles 
and make their own actions help to arouse the feelings they so 
enjoy. They learn readily, and in easily ascertainable ways, to so 
manipulate their environment as to get such feelings out of it as 
do not bring painful consequences or the need of hateful inhibition 
and effort. A witness to the connection between the later pseudo- 
emotions due to literature and the earlier pseudo-emotions due to 
play is found in the frequent tendency of young readers to put 
themselves in the place of some one of the personages in a story. 
The boy makes the hero's words his words, the hero's acts his acts, 
and lets the rest of the book be a stage for his adventures, and 
thus assimilates the new form of mental play to the old form in 
which he himself did actually run and fight and conquer. Were I 
to rename the process of enjoying literature, I should call it con- 
templative play. Were I asked to tell the date of appearance of 
the aesthetic, or pseudo-emotions, I should answer that when the 
baby begins to act for the sake of gaining feelings other than those 
connected with such purely physical matters as food, warmth, exer- 
cise, and protection, then and there he starts on the aesthetic high- 
way. When he begins to use words as a means of gaining such 
feelings, his career as an [enjoyer] of literature has begun, and 
from then on a continuous development may be traced. 

Pseudo-emotions from literature lack real pain and effort. — Chil- 
dren like to feel, we said in another connection, just as they like 



HABITS OF HARMLESS ENJOYMENT 249 

to move. To have things going on in their minds is per se desir- 
able. The desirability increases in proportion as they can exclude 
the particular elements of feeling which cause discomfort. Chief 
of these are certain sensations and emotions which nature provides 
as warning signs against dangerous conditions and the feeling of 
effort or inhibition which is present when we keep some thought 
or feeling down. In their play, I said a moment ago, children so 
manipulate their environment as to get such feelings out of it as 
do not bring painful consequences or the need of hateful inhibition 
and effort. The feelings brought by play, then, differ from those of 
serious life by virtue of what they are not — by virtue of the pain 
and effort they do not arouse. Here we have our fundamental dis- 
tinction between the pseudo and the real emotions. The former 
differ from the latter by virtue of what they are not, by being 
responses to stimuli which the wisdom of long literary effort has 
devised to arouse feelings minus certain undesirable elements. Just 
as the child finds the acts and ideas that excite without frighten- 
ing or stimulate without effort, so the tribe of writers have found 
means of presentation which filter off the joy of conflict from its 
tremors, the sweet of sympathy from the bitter, the thrills of am- 
bition from its strife and worry, the zest of interest from its strain 
and effort. 

Function of pseudo-emotions to give innocent pleasure. — From 
the nature and genesis of these pseudo-emotions we may now hope 
to learn their function. Except by special dispensation they do not 
serve to purify the mind of their real parallels. There is no reason 
why they should and no evidence that they do. Nor do they serve 
to predispose the mind to their real parallels. It does not make 
children feel real lonesomeness to read '^ Robinson Crusoe," nor 
real bloodthirstiness to read " The Last of the Mohicans." We 
know well enough how the quietest people can revel in the pages 
of romance. When a child's emotional make-up is changed by the 
books he reads, it is the real emotions, or, more often still, the ideas 
aroused, that do the work. The function of the pseudo-emotions is 
simply to give innocent pleasure and to be symptoms that the mind 
is at least healthy enough to enjoy unimpeded action. With our 
pseudo-emotions from novels and dramas we play at love or war 
as our children play at keeping store or hunting bears. 



250 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

Play on, children of all ages, says the wise man. Only do not 
imagine that you are saving your souls or remodeling your minds 
by the game. Play on, you who are champions, professionals, who 
turn play to a trade and live by your skill at it, who write essays 
telling how you feel as you play so that others may emulate you. 
Play on, but do not despise the workers in this world. (3 : 195-200) 

In further discussion of some of the points made in the 
above quotation the following comments may assist us in 
clear thinking about training for enjoyment. 

No necessary connection between good art and good moral- 
ity. — The first point to notice is suggested by the last para- 
graph in the quotation, namely, that there is no necessary 
connection between good or high art and good moral be- 
havior. History furnishes any number of examples in which 
periods of the highest development of artistic activity have 
been characterized by the greatest moral degradation. Among 
the best examples are certain periods in Greek history, and life 
in the Italian cities during the Renaissance. Comparing these, 
J. P. Mahaffy says : 

We can quite imagine that, had the mere masterpieces of Italian 
art and literature survived to us from the Middle Ages, — had we 
lost the endless chronicles and acts and letters which admit us to the 
secrets of the age and disclose, in all their nakedness, the burning 
passions and the dark vices of artists and kings and bishops, — we 
might have formed a very different and a very false idea of the 
brilliant Italian republics, which supply the only real analogy to the 
Greek states of classical days. We can imagine the admirers of 
their noble pictures and churches, of their splendid costumes and 
pageants, of their great patriotism and valor, of their refined chivalry, 
j;o have scouted any stray suspicions as to their darker features. 
The Madonnas and* other saints would be taken as the ordinary 
type of their women ; the apostles and martyrs, of their men ; 
and they would be reported a people of such universal beauty that 
ugliness was quite an exception. The diffusion of their art through 
so many cities would prove that they were all trained in the fine 



HABITS OF HARMLESS ENJOYMENT 251 

arts and skillful judges of artistic excellence. Their piety would be a 
national feature ; their poetic and chivalrous love would be national 
also — in fact, we might have a picture very like the ordinary 
notions about the Greeks, with the addition of some splendid fea- 
tures resulting from a higher and purer faith. And these would 
probably compensate for the undeniable inferiority of their art to 
that of the Greeks. 

Yet all this picture would be, as we know, historically false. 
The Italian republics were torn with wild and savage passions ; 
their citizens were violent and lawless, grossly immoral in their 
lives, and reckless in their actions. Their despots were cruel and 
inhuman beyond all decent description, and the Christian faith 
which they professed had no more influence on their lives than 
the moral lessons of the old philosophers and poets upon the 
Greeks — nay, rather, the possibility of deathbed absolution may 
have acted as a release from all moral obligation during active life. 

Nevertheless, these peoples' art was splendid ; their aesthetic 
sense was not dimmed by their crimes, and even the most aban- 
doned of them have about them something truly and justly fasci- 
nating. And again, their pure and saintly men stand out in strange 
and splendid relief. We thus come to see how great intellectual 
and artistic excellence is compatible with great moral faults, with 
vice, and with meanness. We come to see that ideal conception 
and perfect execution imply lofty genius and patient diligence, but 
do not imply in the appreciative spectator either of these qualities, 
and in the artist no moral counterparts. But we may also learn 
how the artist, or the school and succession of artists, may always 
be the few, the exceptional, and the isolated among the crowd, and 
how their great works may vaguely educate the judgment of the 
masses without affecting their principles. (2 : 485-486) 

On the other hand, the Puritans who commonly looked 
upon all aesthetic enjoyment as reprehensible, were most 
austere in their morality. Hence, as Thorndike suggests, 
there is no necessary connection between the contemplative 
play of the enjoyer of artistic productions and the desire 
and endeavor to work for the common good which we know 
as morality. 



252 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

Moral or immoral themes may be effectively presented by 
artists. — Although the enjoyment of art may not be an 
effective moral agent in itself, the artistic presentation of 
moral ideas may be very effective. An artistic writer or 
actor is a master of a given form of expression. Obviously, 
if he chooses to express moral ideas, his appeal ought to be 
more impressive and suggestive than an appeal made by a 
person who is not a master of the form of expression used. 
On the other hand, the skilled writer or actor might choose 
to express immoral ideas, and in this case the appeal might 
possess just as strong a suggestive power. Naturally, in our 
efforts to convey moral suggestions in the school, we will 
try to secure effective artistic expressions of moral ideas and 
avoid effective artistic expressions of immoral suggestions. 

Simple forms of (Esthetic enjoym,ent as ^^ good'' as enjoy- 
ing techiique. — In view of the preceding discussion it is 
clear that the more primitive forms of enjoyment of rhythm, 
rime, melody, color, story, action, and humor are just as 
good or respectable as the enjoyment of workmanship, tech- 
nique, or expertness such as are involved in a contemplation 
or study of structure, composition, meter, choice of words, 
figures of speech, technical analysis. Thorndike dismisses 
the discussions of these forms of enjoyment with the single 
statement that '' the enjoyment of workmanship is so rare 
among young students that nothing need here be said of it." 
Yet, this enjoyment of workmanship is often the most 
emphasized element in courses in the study of literature, 
drama, and music. It is doubtful whether many adults, even 
those who are well educated, develop much of it. This is 
well illustrated by the vigorous applause at classical concerts 
when there is hope for a melodious popular encore. The 
greater thunderous applause that follows the encore is usually 
clear indication that the applause for the main selection was 
inspired by hope of what was to come. Just as clearly de- 
fined rhythm, simple melody and harmony, and beauty of 



HABITS OF HARMLESS ENJOYMENT 253 

tone constitute the chief factors in the musical enjoyment 
of most persons, so rhythm, rime, and a ''good story" 
constitute the basis of most enjoyment of poetry, a '' good 
story " and humor, of the enjoyment of prose, and action and 
humor, of the enjoyment of the drama. As far as all moral 
consequences are concerned, it is just as good to enjoy Sousa's 
band as to enjoy a symphony orchestra or a Wagnerian 
opera ; it is just as good to enjoy a farce-comedy that contains 
no vulgar suggestions as it is to enjoy a Shakespearean 
tragedy ; it is just as good to enjoy Jack London's '' Burning 
Daylight" or most of the stories in the SatiLrday Eve^iing 
Post as it is to enjoy Thackeray or the Atlantic Monthly. 

Study of literature. Introduced in high school from classi- 
cal standpoint, — The preceding paragraphs presented the 
fundamental point of view upon which the discussion of the 
development of habits of enjoying literature will be based. 
A brief historical comment will further assist us in getting 
a proper background for the discussion, since the study of 
English literature is a relatively recent development in high 
schools. One of the best means of securing an understanding 
of this fact is to read the paper entitled '' What is a Liberal 
Education.?" published by President C. W. Eliot, of Har- 
vard University, in the Ce^ttttry Magazine, in June, 1884. 
(See also his ''Educational Reform," 1898, pp. 97-101.) 
In this essay he points out that many high schools gave no 
training at that time in reading English literature, and the 
rest gave little attention to it. He argued that it should be 
taught as a serious object of study and as constituting one of 
the most important subjects in a liberal education. 

As a result of such views as this the New England Com- 
mission on College-Entrance Requirements originated in 1888 
the idea of a prescribed list of books to be read in high schools. 
The idea was adopted by other organizations — for example, 
by the Committee of Ten of the National Education Associa- 
tion in 1892. The practices that developed under this system 



254 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

in the teaching of high-school hterature are still in vogue in 
many places and are familiar to all who have attended high 
schools since 1895. The practice has consisted of an intensive 
analytical study of a few books in class, with additional read- 
ing of other books outside. The books selected consisted of 
classics which were chosen because of their superior literary 
qualities or their importance in the history of English literature. 

English teachers rapidly adapting methods to social needs. 
— We have already described at some length the rapid de- 
velopment in recent years of the general tendency to con- 
sider high-school education in terms of the needs, interests, 
and capacities of high-school students and in terms of rather 
direct training for participation in the various types of social 
activities found in the communities which the high schools 
serve (see pp. 60 and 78). This general movement is affect- 
ing the teaching of English as it is the teaching of all other 
subjects. The best expression of this influence is found in 
the activities of the National Council of English Teachers 
and its official organ of publication. The English Journal, 
the first volume of which was issued during 19 12. For an 
outline of the history of this movement, with a select bibli- 
ography, see pages 95-121 of the first volume of Xh^ Journal. 
So active is the progress of this reform movement in the 
teaching of English, and so radical are its measures, that 
many of the plans and discussions which were prepared 
during the period of the dominance of college-entrance re- 
quirements are of little use at the present time. Hence, in 
presenting this phase of the subject I shall quote at length 
from descriptions of actual experiments in teaching literature 
that have been undertaken in recent years. The first point 
to be considered is training in the reading of fiction, 

Trainijig to read harmless fiction is J first importance. — 
With the exception of the reading of the daily newspaper by 
adults, the reading of contemporary fiction will probably con- 
stitute the largest part of the reading done for recreation by 



HABITS OF HARMLESS ENJOYMENT 255 

most children and adults. This being the case, it is obvious 
that training which aims to establish correct habits in select- 
ing and reading current fiction constitutes one of the most 
important duties of the school. 

One of the most important services the high school can 
perform is to introduce sttLdents to the writei's of the best 
current fiction who will continue to be prodtccers of such 
literature for five or ten years after the students in question 
have graduated from high school. If students are thus started 
to read worthy books by active contemporary authors while 
in school, they will be given a basis for selecting, from the 
overwhelming mass of new fiction which is being printed, 
those works which are admitted by many competent judges 
to be as good as any English fiction which was written in the 
past. Progressive teachers of English are interested in pre- 
paring reading lists which include such contemporary fiction 
to serve as guides to high-school students. One of the best- 
known lists is that prepared by a committee of the National 
Council of English Teachers, which can be purchased for ten 
cents from the secretary of the Council. (See 16 a) 

The problems involved in teaching fiction have been well 
discussed in an article entitled " The School and Current 
Fiction " (13). The author faces squarely the real issue pre- 
sented by the fact that one hundred thirty-seven out of some 
two hundred boys in his high-school classes were regular 
readers of the Sattcrday Evening Post (which, by the way, 
he says contains much good literature) and that the Ladies 
Home Journal and the Cosmopolitan ranked next in the list 
of magazines read. He mentions the further fact that many 
students do practically no reading for enjoyment. In sum- 
marizing his discussion of methods of dealing with this situ- 
ation in such a way as to lead students to read good fiction 
and to forsake what he calls rubbish, he says : 

In order to enable our pupils to get the most out of current 
fiction, we must do several things. First, we must make the fiction 



256 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

that we teach in school so interesting that they will want more. 
That means that we must like it and let them see that we do. Sec- 
ondly, we must read a good deal of the sort of current fiction that 
we expect them to read, and even a certain part of what we want 
them not to read. Thirdly, we must keep before them a list of books 
that will be good for them. And we must not patronizingly recom- 
mend these from above. We must say, " This is a good book ; I 
have enjoyed it, and I want you to enjoy it too." And we must 
let some of the boys [and girls] tell the class about the books they 
have read, encouraging them to speak with absolute sincerity. 
We must work at the level of those we teach. One cannot do 
slumming by telephone. 

We aim to teach our students to share our pleasures. We must, 
then, begin by sharing with them those in which our pupils are fitted 
to share. We must show them what we get out of books. We must 
help them to find the best books. It is no use forbidding the half 
good. We must praise it and lead on from it, up to the wholly good, 
to the real uplands of literature. These, some of us feel, rise far 
higher than the highest fiction. Be that as it may, we must see that 
our pupils get the good that fiction has to offer them. For in this, 
I repeat, lies the justification of teaching fiction. We are not teach- 
ing them to write novels. We are not teaching them to criticize 
novels. We are not even qualifying them to talk about novels. 
We are not preparing them to be examined. We are trying to 
show them how to get a wholesome pleasure out of good stories. 
We are trying to teach them to see through the eyes of great 
novelists that the world is interesting to watch, that it is good to 
live in, and we are trying — this is our topmost endeavor — to teach 
them to feel, as the greatest of novelists have felt, that human nature 
is a noble thing, that through all the confused pattern of life there 
runs a meaning and a mystery. No student whose novel reading 
leads him to this has wasted his time. (13 : 23) 

Training to read magazines especially ifnportant. — An- 
other innovation in the recent reform wave for developing 
harmless habits of enjoyment of reading is the organization 
of systematic courses in the study of American literature, with 
special provision for training in the reading of the better grades 



HABITS OF HARMLESS ENJOYMENT 257 

of magazines. The following quotation presents part of the 
justification for such training in reading periodical literature : 

Such a study can be made a profitable adjunct to the course in 
American literature. Conditions in the literary life of America cer- 
tainly justify it, for, as Professor Barrett Wendell says, " the illus- 
trated monthly magazines which circulate by hundreds of thousands, 
and go from one end of the country to the other, provide the ordinary 
American citizen of to-day with his nearest approach to literature." 
The modem magazine does indeed dominate the literary life of 
the average American to-day. He has time for a casual glance at 
the daily news and the morning editorial at his breakfast or on his 
way to business ; ten or fifteen minutes can be spared now and 
then in the evening or on Sunday or a holiday for a short story or 
a striking article in some monthly or weekly ; but he has neither 
time nor inclination for much continuous reading of longer tales 
or elaborated treatises. Besides, the cooperation of the economic 
idea of division of labor with the educational ideal of specialization 
has made it possible for the magazine to furnish an intellectual diet 
suited to all tastes. Moreover, our greatest writers of short stories 
and poems are those whose work has appeared or is still appearing 
in our magazines. Indeed, the history of the American magazine is 
the history of American literature. ... As Henry Mills Alden, for 
forty years editor of Harper^ s Magazine^ says : " The catholicity of 
magazines and their hospitality to young writers have done more 
than all other influences to build up our literature." Many of the 
masterpieces of American literature first found a reading public 
through the magazine. Bryant's " Thanatopsis " and "To a Water- 
fowl" appeared in t\\Q North America7i Review \ Halleck's "Marco 
Bozzaris " and Bryant's " Death of the Flowers " were published 
in the New York Review ; Poe's " Raven " was first published in 
the New York Mirror-^ Longfellow's "Psalm of Life" came out 
in the Knickerbocker Magazine ; Holmes's first two installments of 
the "Autocrat of the Breakfast Table" were published in the New 
England Magazine^ the later ones in the Atlantic Monthly ; Whit- 
man's first literary success, " Death in a School Room," came out 
in the Democratic Review ; Lowell's first series of Biglow Papers 
was published in the Boston Courier-^ Edward Everett Hale's 



258 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

" The Man without a Country," in the Atlantic Mojithly ; and 
Howells's "Venetian Life," in the Boston Advertiser-^ and these 
are but a few instances. (20 : 357-361) 

For the method of conducting the class work and arranging 
assignments in a course based on the reading of contempo- 
rary magazines, the student should read the whole article 
from which the above quotation is taken. 

Shorty serious articles on current events read for recreation. 
— In connection with the reading of magazines for purposes 
of enjoyment it is not necessary to confine one's self exclu- 
sively to fiction. Many high-school students are interested 
in topics of the day and would do more or less reading con- 
cerning them if properly stimulated and encouraged. By 
proceeding from the news items and cartoons in the daily 
papers to news summaries and cartoons in the weekly 
reviews, and from these to editorials in the newspapers and 
articles of similar type in the weekly reviews or in the 
magazines, it would be possible to initiate habits of reading 
such material. As with adults, the initial interest is always 
aroused by the fact that something of general human inter- 
est is taking place. Hence the simple narrative of such 
an event is usually of quite general interest, and by skillful 
teaching the interest can be carried over to the more thought- 
ful discussions of current events. Certainly many adults find 
their daily or weekly recreation in the reading of such material, 
and many of the questions and events of the day possess in- 
terest and educational possibilities for adolescents. 

If classics a7'e taught, correct methods shonld be nsed. — 
After we have considered current books of fiction and current 
newspapers, reviews, and magazines, with their installments 
of fiction and their discussions of the vital and serious prob- 
lems of daily life, we have covered practically all the forms 
of reading for recreation which will play any considerable 
part in the lives of the adults that most high-school boys 
and girls will become. If teachers of English are themselves 



HABITS OF HARMLESS ENJOYMENT 259 

acquainted with the good and the bad in current books and 
magazines, and are skilled teachers, they will find it easier 
to develop habits of good taste and refined enjoyment in 
reading by using material from contemporary social life than 
by using material from past social situations which are rela- 
tively remote from the interests of young persons of to-day. 
If, however, it is considered desirable to study classics which 
reflect former social situations or which may be considered 
good stories for all time, certain special points in method 
should be kept in mind. 

Teacher must knozv what is adapted to students. — The 
first point to be considered is the adaptation of the material 
to the interests of the students. The importance of the 
teacher's judgment in this connection is emphasized in the 
following statement by Professor F. T. Baker : 

In the teaching of literature we are to assume [in the teacher], 
as I have already said, a good general knowledge of real literature, 
sound taste, and openness of mind. 

But knowing literature in this way is not enough. One must 
come to know what it may mean, or may be made to mean, to 
the boy and girl — what things in a given poem or story or drama 
may have interest and significance to an immature mind. He must 
know, in other words, the points of contact between the literature 
and adolescent minds. If the main interest of the selection, as he 
sees it, is beyond the reach of boys and girls, he had better pass 
the selection by. Some girls will get the quaint humor and the 
gentle pathos of " Cranford " ; most boys will not. The self- 
questioniQg of George Eliot's heroines is too analytic and too 
excessively moral for boys and girls, George Eliot, except for 
'^ Silas Marner," belongs to the college age. The conceits of the 
Elizabethan and Cavalier lyrics presuppose a background of general 
reading and special interests which, for most people, postpones 
them indefinitely. (12 : 340) 

Satire on analytical methods with classics. — The second 
point to notice, if teachers expect to continue to teach literary 



26o TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

classics, is that the method should emphasize the obvious 
effects which the author intended to secure in his writing, 
and should not involve a detailed analytical study of his de- 
vices for securing these effects, or other matters of technique. 
An excellent satire on the current analytical and technical 
methods of studying literary classics is the following quota- 
tion from an address by Professor F. N. Scott. In it he de- 
scribes an imaginary experiment in teaching English literature 
to a sophomore class in a high school in which the college- 
entrance requirements in English literature had been abolished 
and the teachers left free to choose any books to be read by 
the students. He proceeds as follows : 

If I were not engaged in this inferior business of teaching in 
a university, and my time were not all taken up with it, I should 
like to go into a high school where these formal prescriptions had 
been put aside and take charge of a class in English. I think I 
should talk to the pupils in some such way as this : 

" The classes of former years have been reading this prescribed 
set of books — a pretty poor sort of literature, in my opinion, and 
not proper for young people to read. You are very fortunate in 
being able to get rid of them. They are mostly very dull and un- 
interesting. There is the Iliad, for example, full of fighting and 
blood and the killing of men, and of armies clashing with one an- 
other in desperate conflicts where all the elementary and violent 
human passions are set free. Horrible ! The International Peace 
Society cannot approve of anything of that sort. We will put this 
book aside, and I hope none of you will touch it. Then there is 
the ' Faerie Queene,' all about giants and maidens in distress, magic 
and mystery of all sorts — perfectly useless, a futile, silly thing, 
nearly as bad as the Arabian Nights. Don't go near it. I trust, 
also, that no one will attempt to read ' As You Like It,' which has 
a wrestling match in the very beginning (these minor athletics 
ought not to be allowed in literature) and tells about a girl who 
ran off into the forest in boy's dress — a most improper performance 
on her part. I am sure we ought not to talk about those things 
in this class. And even worse, perhaps, is Tennyson's ' Princess,' 



HABITS OF HARMLESS ENJOYMENT 261 

where a prince, who ought to know better, disguises himself in 
woman's clothing and gains admission to a girls' academy. A 
scandalous thing ! No gentleman would act in that way. In 
short, these books are all harmful and ought to be destroyed. For 
the present I will put them on the top shelf of the closet here, and 
just as soon as the janitor is at liberty we will have them burned. 

"And now we are going to take up some books which I know 
you will enjoy. I want you to be just as enthusiastic as you can 
about them, for we are going to study them and study them 
hard, and you will get a great deal of profit out of them, and all 
will be greatly improved. For the boys we will take Captain Mayne 
Reid's ^ Afloat in a Forest.' We are going to read that book a 
paragraph at a time and examine carefully every allusion in it. 
It is about some people who floated down the river Amazon. 
First we will draw a map of South America, locating the course 
of the river, and then we will ascertain how wide the Amazon is 
at various points and how fast the current moves. Finally we will 
determine the amount of silt which is deposited by the river at its 
mouth. Captain Mayne Reid, by the way, makes a mistake. He 
has three people float down in a much shorter time than they 
possibly could. You will see that this is so when we discover the 
exact relationship between the flow of the stream and their rate of 
progress. We shall go into these details with the utmost care, and 
after a little while you will write some nice little essays about them. 

" For the benefit of the girls we will read in the same careful and 
scholarly way Robert Chambers's ' Heart Throbs of a Multimillion- 
aire.' We will determine just how many times the heart throbs 
when two hearts are in unison, and learn about the two kinds of 
blood corpuscles, and so on, and there will be essays on all these 
things also. 

'^ But this is not all. Two years from now, when you are seniors, 
we will take these books up again and go over them and over them 
and over them until you know the answers to every last question 
in regard to all these mathematical, biological, chemical, and topo- 
graphical things, and that will be absolutely delightful." 

I think we can all prophesy what would be the result of such 
an experiment. If the room were not locked or the closet door 
locked, after two or three weeks those classics which were put on 



262 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

the top shelf would have to be rebound, and as regards the other 
books, when their very names were mentioned, I think the pupils 
would fly shrieking. They would never want to see the '' Heart 
Throbs of a Multimillionaire " again, or even "Afloat in the Forest," 
good as that book is. (19 : 70-72) 

Two lines of reading : studying and enjoyi^ig. — Schools 
have dealt so exclusively with subjects in which intellectual 
processes, such as reflective thinking or acquiring information, 
are uppermost, that teachers are at a loss to know what 
methods to use when the responses to be secured are pri- 
marily emotional. Similarly, they are at a loss to know how 
to proceed to develop abiding interests, that is, habitual tend- 
encies to reach out after more experiences along certain lines. 
Hence, in teaching literature they apply the methods that 
have been used in the study of mathematics, science, gram- 
mar, history, etc., with the result that they develop an abiding 
distaste for literature instead of an abiding interest in it. An 
excellent discussion of these mistakes in method is found in 
an article entitled ''Two Lines of High-School Reading," 
which teachers of literature should read. (21 : 476-482) 

Diffictdt to avoid snap courses in reading for enjoyment. — 
Closely related to the difiiculty that we have been discussing 
is the fear that a course intended to develop habits of en- 
joyment will become a snap. This means either that the 
students will not have to dig and grind to overcome difflcul- 
ties or that they will not do the outside reading which is 
required. The first of these meanings need not concern us, 
since persons are not supposed to dig and grind to enjoy 
artistic productions. The second danger, namely, that stu- 
dents will not do the outside reading, is difficult to meet. 
As a first step, however, the list of readings can be made up 
of such interesting books that students will wish to read them. 
Secondly, the readings can be discussed in class in an in- 
formal way, so as to secure an indirect check upon the reading 
done by the students. 



HABITS OF HARMLESS ENJOYMENT 263 

Spontaneous evaluations by students start disctissions. — 
If the books to be read are within the range of the interests 
and understanding of the students, they will call forth a 
wealth of responses, comments, and evaluations from the 
students themselves. These can be made the starting point 
for class discussions which will bring out all the fundamental 
effects that the author expected readers to get. For the most 
part these discussions will jiot be concerned with an analysis 
of the tools or devices that the author has used to secure 
his effects. Such informal teaching requires a more skilled 
teacher than does teaching based upon an annotated edition 
of a classic accompanied by study questions. Hence, in high 
schools in which teachers are expected to teach literature 
who have no adequate preparation for it, the current formal- 
ized method will probably continue in use. Teachers who 
know their subject matter thoroughly, however, and know 
boys and girls as well, ought to succeed with the informal 
method recommended above. 

Enjoyment of drama. Prominefit in social life. — Up to 
this point in the chapter we have considered the following 
sources of enjoyment : (i) participation in sports and games, 

(2) social activities in the form of clubs, parties, and dances, 

(3) music, and (4) reading. The last source that we shall 
consider is the drama, which, in the cities, plays a very large 
part in the recreation of many persons and has always been 
an important factor in general recreation. Its influence in this 
connection was strikingly presented by Friedrich von Schiller 
(i 759-1 805), the great German poet, in an essay entitled 
'' The Stage as a Moral Institution," published about 1795. 
After discussing the advantages of the drama from various 
points of view he says : 

Another advantage belongs to the stage — one which seems to 
have become acknowledged even by its censurers. Its influence on 
intellectual and moral culture, which we have till now been advo- 
cating, may be doubted, but its very enemies have admitted that 



264 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

it has gained the palm over all other means of amusement. It has 
been of much higher service here than people are often ready 
to allow. 

Human nature cannot bear to be always on the rack of business, 
and the charms of sense die out with their gratification. Man, 
oppressed by appetites, weary of long exertion, thirsts for refined 
pleasure or rushes into dissipations that hasten his fall and ruin 
and disturb social order. Bacchanal joys, gambling, follies of all 
sorts, . . . are unavoidable if the lawgiver provides nothing better. 
A man of public business, who has made noble sacrifices to the 
state, is apt to pay for them with melancholy, the scholar to be- 
come a pedant and the people brutish, without the stage. The 
stage is an institution combining amusement with instruction, rest 
with exertion, where no faculty of the mind is overstrained, no 
pleasure enjoyed at the cost of the whole. (18 : 338) 

Three opportunities: readings participating in, and attend- 
ing plays. — In providing training for the enjoyment of the 
drama there are three types of opportunity, namely, (i) train- 
ing through the reading of plays, (2) training through par- 
ticipation in amateur dramatics, and (3) training through 
attendance at professional performances. 

Expert oral readirig of plays should replace silent reading. 
— The first of these forms of training, namely, reading 
plays, is the one most commonly emphasized in schools, but 
the one that possesses the least chances of success. Many 
teachers seem to overlook the fact that plays are written to 
be acted and seen, not to be read by the ordinary reader. It 
is very difficult for most persons to get the intended effects 
by reading a play. Even very well-trained persons often fail, 
as is shown by a recent review of a performance of Bernard 
Shaw's ''Press Cuttings" in Chicago. The critic, one of the 
best known in Chicago, stated that the performance was a 
revelation to him, since he had not felt when reading the 
play the large amount of humor which the performance 
brought out. An oral presentation or reading of a play by 



HABITS OF HARMLESS ENJOYMENT 265 

a skilled reader who is familiar with the effects and values 
which should be brought out is superior to silent reading or 
study and offers possibilities in many centers of population 
where good performances are infrequent. Even a fairly 
talented and well-educated teacher, by careful study and 
preparation of a few plays, might develop a limited reper- 
tory, which could be used effectively with classes from year 
to year. 

Skilled teachers pr-ovide educative dramatization by stu- 
dents. — The second form of training for the enjoyment of 
the drama, namely, participation in amateur dramatics, is 
emphasized in many schools where capable teachers are 
available. Under the tutelage of well-trained and intelligent 
leaders, simple, unpretentious plays may be attempted with 
students of all ages, and an interest in dramatic performances 
gradually built up that will result in habitual good taste in 
choosing plays to be attended outside of school. An example 
of an extended experiment in training children along these 
lines is described by Alice M. Herts in a book entitled 
*' The Children's Educational Theatre," which teachers con- 
cerned in instruction in dramatics should read. 

Attendance on modern plays should e7itertai7i if it is to 
instriLct. — Training through attendance upon professional 
theatrical performances is impossible in many places, owing 
to lack of opportunity. Moreover, this training is difficult to 
organize in a systematic way even where there are such op- 
portunities. Many skilled teachers, however, take advantage 
of whatever occasional opportunities are afforded and utilize 
them in connection with the instruction in literature. 

In selecting a play to be attended the first point to con- 
sider is whether it is sure to be entertaining. This point is 
often forgotten by persons who are striving to achieve some 
educational purpose through the theater. In the statement 
by Schiller given above on page 263 he said the stage com- 
bines amusement with instruction, but many advocates of the 



266 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

uplift drama at the present time overlook the necessity of 
amusement altogether and simply provide instruction. As 
a consequence they fail to have audiences to instruct. 

An example of a systematic high-school course in dramatic 
study which includes attendance upon modern plays is de- 
scribed in the English J ottrnal for February, 191 3. (10: 
93-98.) While the experiment is somewhat classical in its 
tendencies, it may be regarded as a movement in the right 
direction. One of the aims of the course is stated to be '' to 
approach Shakespeare and other classic playwrights through 
what is the most vital thing in the life of many young people 
to-day — the stage; and to guide the pupils' theater-going 
and form their taste in modern plays by comparison with 
those that have become classic." 

Conclusion of discussion of forming habits of enjoyment. — 
This will conclude our discussion of the formation of habits 
of harmless enjoyment. We have tried to face squarely the 
issue presented by the fact that, as people secure leisure 
time, methods of enjoying this time in innocent and harmless 
ways must be provided by society, and the schools must 
develop habits of choosing the right forms of enjoyment. 
In order to avoid confusing the issue with training for intel- 
lectual efficiency, we have tried to make it clear that we are 
not here concerned with appreciation (whatever that may be) 
or understanding. In order to avoid confusing the issue with 
moral training, we have shown that many forms of enjoy- 
ment are almost unmoral in quality ; that is, they bear little 
or no relation to one's desire and endeavor to work for the 
common good. 

In solving the problem the educator must first study the 
forms of enjoyment which we find practiced by ordinary 
well-behaved, cultivated people. The list includes sports and 
games, clubs and parties, dancing, music, the reading of fic- 
tion, magazines, and newspapers (including serious articles 
concerning questions of the day), theater-going, and some 



HABITS OF HARMLESS ENJOYMENT 26'J 

other types, such as visits to art galleries, which we have 
not considered in this chapter. 

In each case the pedagogical problem is to adapt the school 
activities in these lines to the capacities and interests of stu- 
dents at different ages — to begin with activities and materials 
which they enjoy, and gradually develop, from these, habits 
of good taste and refinement which may persist outside of 
school. During the last few years vigorous experimentation 
has been carried on to determine how success can be achieved. 
The progressive teacher of any of the subjects mentioned 
should keep in close touch with the periodical educational 
literature, in order to learn what progress is being made. 



BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES 

General discussions. — r. Garber, J. B. Current Educational 
Activities for igii. (J. B. Lippincott Company.) Describes recent 
movements to provide public recreation. 

2. Mahaffy, J. P. Social Life i7i Greece. (The Macmillan Com- 
pany, 1898.) Chaps, xiv and xv, especially pp. 484-489, on relation of 
Greek art to Greek morality. 

3. Thorndike, E. L. The Esthetic Emotions. Teachers College 
Record., 1901, Vol. II, pp. 195-200. Good psychological analysis. 

4. Thorndike, E. L. Principles of Teaching. (A. G. Seiler, 1905.) 
Pp. 189-205. 

Enjoyment of music. — 5. Bobbitt, J. F. A City School as a Com- 
munity Art and Musical Center. Elementary School Teacher., Novem- 
ber, 191 1, Vol. XII, pp. 1 19-126. Concrete account of developments 
in Richmond, Indiana. 

6. Earhart, W. The Music Supervisors' High-School Course. 
Proceedings of the National Education AssociatioTt, 191 2, pp. 1004- 
1009. By the organizer of the Richmond experiment. 

7. Farnsworth, C. H. Music in the High School, in C. H.John- 
ston's High-School Education. (Charles Scribner's Sons, 191 2.) Pp. 
3 1 7-33 1 • Probably the best summary discussion. 

8. LuTKiN, P. C. Musical Appreciation — How it is Devel- 
oped. Proceedings of the National Education Association., 191 2, 
pp. 1009-1013. 



268 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

' Enjoyment of literature and the drama. — 9. Abbott, A. A High- 
School Course in Periodical Literature, E7iglish Journal^ September, 
1913, Vol. II, pp. 422-427. 
\ 10. Abbott, A. A High-School Course in Drama. English Journal^ 
February, 191 3, Vol. II, pp. 93-98. 

11. Anderson, R. E. A Preliminary Study of the Reading Taste 
of High-School Pupils. Pedagogical Seminary^ December, 19 12, 
Vol. XIX, pp. 438-460. 

12. Baker, F. T. The Teacher of English. English Journal^ ']xm!t^ 
1913, Vol. II, pp. 335-343- 

13. Bates, H. The School and Current Fiction. English Journal^ 
January, 191 2, Vol. I, pp. 15-23. 

14. Chubb, P. The Menace of Pedantry in the Teaching of English. 
School Review, January, 191 2, Vol. XX, pp. 34-45. 

15. Eliot, C. W. Educational Reforjn. (The Century Company, 
1898.) Pp. 97-101. An argument for the introduction of literature into 
high schools; written in 1884. 

16. English Journal, the ofHcial organ of the National Council of 
English Teachers. Edited by J. F. Hosic ; published by The University 
of Chicago Press. Vol. I, 191 2. Every English teacher should read it 
regularly. 

\ id a. National Council of English Teachers. Report of the Com- 
mittee upon Home Reading (191 3) may be secured from the Secretary, 
68th St. and Stewart Ave., Chicago, 111. Price 10 cents. 

17. Herts, Alice M. The Child?'en''s Educational Theatre. 
(Harper & Brothers, 191 1.) 

18. Schiller, F. Essays ^sthetical and Philosophical. (G.Bell 
& Co., London, 1905.) See pp. 333-339 concerning the stage. 

19. Scott, F. N. Discussion of High-School Enghsh uninfluenced 
^ by College-Entrance Requirements. Pi^oceedings of the North Central 

Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools, 191 2, pp. 67-72. 

20. Simons, Sarah E. American Literature and the Modern Maga- 
zine in High School. English Jou?''nal,]une, 191 3, Vol. II, pp. 357-361. 

21. Terry, H. L. Two Lines of High-School Reading. School 
Review, September, 191 2, Vol. XX, pp. 476-482. 

22. Thompson, Grace. High-School Reading : Newark Plan, 
School Review, March, 1913, Vol. XXI, pp. 187-190. 

23. Wallace, J. A. A Plan for Outside Reading. School Review^ 
September, 1913, Vol. XXI, pp. 478-485. 



CHAPTER XI 

TRAINING IN EXPRESSION 

Main points of the chapter. — i . Oral and written expression 
concerning vital daily issues is of great social importance. 

2. The first essential in training in expression is to make sure 
that the students have real content to express. Such content can 
be best secured from the content subjects or from the vocational 
and leisure interests of the students. 

3. The second essential is to provide motive for expression 
through the creation of real audience situations. 

4. The first step in the preparation of specific assignments or 
topics for expression is to assure clear thinking by the student. 
This is stimulated by requiring all material to be organized in the 
form of briefs. 

5. The endeavor of the student to organize his presentation 
from the point of view of his audience will furnish a concrete 
basis for making the presentation clear, interesting, and impres- 
sive, and for using correct forms of expression. 

6. The instruction in oral expression should be organized so as 
to include definite intellectual content, in order to require serious 
preparation by the students and to avoid waste of time in class. 
It is probably best to combine it with training in written composition. 

7. The general principles of practice discussed in Chapter VIII 
should be applied to training in expression. 

8. Contribution recitations in all content subjects, based on 
carefully prepared briefs, provide the best training in expression 
and do not require technical English training of the teachers. 

9. The more formal aspects of English training should also be 
organized cooperatively between the department of English and 
other departments. 

ID. The general principles of training in expression apply to the 
teaching of drawing as a means of expression. 

269 



2/0 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

An important issue in all classes. — In this chapter we 
shall take up the fifth and last type of learning that is to be 
considered, namely, training in expression. The other types 
which we have discussed have been the following : (i) ac- 
quiring motor skill, (2) associating symbols and meanings, 
(3) reflective thinking, and (4) acquiring habits of enjoy- 
ment. These types of learning are not entirely unlike each 
other, and from the psychological standpoint the separation 
which we have made may be unwise. From the practical 
pedagogical standpoint, however, each type that we have 
distinguished serves as a useful basis for discussing methods 
of teaching which are especially appropriate in certain sub- 
jects. The same may be said of the type of learning that is 
to be discussed in this chapter, namely, expression. This 
type is especially important in the teaching of oral and 
written composition in high schools, and in some other sub- 
jects, such as drawing and painting. The psychological prin- 
ciples involved are primarily those of habit formation, which 
we have considered several times in connection with the other 
types of learning, but their application to training in expres- 
sion raises many special pedagogical questions. Apparently 
this chapter should be of special interest only to teachers 
of English composition, but as a matter of fact, unless the 
principles set forth are applied by all teachers in taking ad- 
vantage of the opportunities for training in expression which 
are offered by all subjects, the results of such training will 
continue to be quite unsatisfactory. 

Verbal expression more important than other forms of ex- 
pression. — Of the various forms of expression, verbal expres- 
sion is the most important. This becomes evident when we 
consider the large part which it plays in social life, where 
communication through speech and writing becomes an im- 
portant factor in the activities of nearly all people. The use 
of other forms of expression is relatively infrequent ; for ex- 
ample, drawing, painting, and modeling are used, as a rule, 



TRAINING IN EXPRESSION 271 

only by certain specialized groups of people. Exception might 
be made of rough sketching and mechanical drawing, which 
are used by a large number of artisans and scientists. 

Oral expression is as important as writteit expression. — 
When we consider the relative importance of oral expression 
and of written expression in ordinary social intercourse, it is 
evident that the former has been relatively neglected in favor 
of written composition in high-school instruction. Most per- 
sons employ oral expression for conveying ideas much more 
frequently than they do written expression. Examples are 
easily found in the activities of business and the professions, 
notably in selling and in school-teaching. In business life 
the dictating of letters makes training in oral expression par- 
ticularly important. Hence such training should be given 
larger emphasis in the schools. On the other hand elocu- 
tionary training is relatively unimportant when judged by the 
part which it plays in the lives of most persons. 

Emphasize expression of everyday matters. — In training 
in expression, the types of writing and speaking in which 
training is provided should be emphasized roughly in pro- 
portion to the extent to which each type is likely to play a 
part in the lives of the students who are being trained. If 
this is done, there will be relatively little endeavor made to 
train students to write novels or literary essays or criticisms 
and to deliver orations, but much emphasis will be placed 
upon the discussion, description, and explanation of everyday 
matters. This point of view, as far as it concerns written com- 
position, is well set forth in an article entitled '' The Vital in 
Teaching English," as follows : 

In every hundred of our pupils perhaps two will be professional 
writers doing newspaper or hack work ; the percentage of writers 
of literature is inconsiderable, of course. Perhaps ten in a hundred 
will have occasion a few times in their lives to write for publication : 
a doctor or a scientist may publish a discovery or a report, a lawyer 
may find it desirable to present a plea to the public, and a minister 



2/2 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

may publish a volume of sermons. . . . About forty in a hundred 
will write papers for missionary meetings or women's clubs, or re- 
ports for stockholders' meetings or governing bodies. The rest of 
the hundred, practically one-half the whole number, will write only 
letters, telling about Johnnie's mumps, or asking about Aunt Maria's 
new bonnet, or promising the shipment of certain goods, or fixing a 
price, or arranging a contract. If these statements seem to belittle 
our profession, ask yourself whether they are not true, and then 
be thoughtful and frank in your answer. I am not even belittling 
the importance of the letters that these people are to write, but I 
do wish to consider what are their needs in connection with the 
facts. Neither am I condemning these people to what you may 
call a narrow sphere. I am only saying that nature has made them 
that way, and though I cannot necessarily pick out the individual 
members of each class, the life around us shows that the facts v/ill 
be those that I have indicated. Of course, we shall all agree that 
we cannot make writers of literature of any considerable percent- 
age of our pupils. A writer of literature is always a poet, at heart, 
and the origin of poets is not now disputed. Yet I fear the as- 
sumption of a great deal of teaching of English has been that writers 
of literature could be made. (8: 469-483) 

The point made in the preceding paragraph is simply a 
special application of the general point concerning the adap- 
tation of subject matter to varying social needs, which was 
discussed above on pages 60-67. As pointed out on page 66, 
even more specific adaptations should also be made to the 
needs of the different types of students found in high schools 
in organizing the work in English composition. 

Make sure that students have vital content to express. — 
The first factor to be considered in the organization of the 
actual instruction in oral or written composition is to make 
sure that the students have something to express. If this 
condition is lacking, no progress can be made. This fact 
seems so self-evident that it is surprising that it should ever 
be disregarded ; yet the topics for composition in some of the 
old-fashioned rhetoric books indicate that the authors did 



TRAINING IN EXPRESSION 273 

not concern themselves at all with what students had to say, 
but chose their topics on the basis of the current interests of 
educated adults or what seemed to be appropriate topics for 
literary efforts. 

Recent examples of topics from st?idents interests. — A list 
of theme topics derived from the present-day interests of high- 
school students is found in an article entitled ''Discovering 
Human Interests," written in 191 3. The author describes a 
plan which he uses for training in oral composition. Each 
student is expected to speak for several minutes upon a topic 
of special interest to himself and upon which he has made 
special preparation. He may specialize on a single topic or 
line of topics for several talks. The following are among the 
topics discussed, as reported by the class secretaries. 

Second-Semester Students 

" Captains Courageous " ; The Necessity of Keeping Children 
at School as long as Possible ; Child Labor ; A Strange Cruise ; 
Physical Training ; Prevention of Cruelty to Animals ; Model 
Aeroplanes; " With Lafayette at Yorktown " ; Divers; The Going- 
down of the Titanic ; Aeroplanes in War ; " Under Lawton at 
Luzon"; Catching Baboons; Long Words; " Five Thousand Miles 
Underground " ; Compartments for Submarines in Battleships ; 
Motor Boats ; The Princeton Meet ; " Tom Swift and his Sub- 
marine " ; The New Moving-Picture Plan ; Baseball ; The Sinking 
of the Maine ; Rabbit-Hunting ; The Two Great Walkers ; Choice 
of Guns; The Coal Strike; The Business Side of a Circus; The 
Increase in Motor Trucks ; Farm Life ; The Olympic Games ; 
The New Bandstand in Indianapolis ; " Huckleberry Finn." . . . 

Seventh-Semester Students 

The Advantage of Having a Profession ; The Panama Canal ; 
Girard College ; Music and the Piano ; What Wide Reading Does 
for You ; Painting ; " The Garden of Allah " ; A Town in Africa ; 
Pigeons ; How to Make Caramels ; Charles B. Loomis ; Brass- 
Craft ; Playgrounds on the Piers ; The Baking of a Cake ; A Trip 



2/4 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

to Pennsylvania ; The Manufacture of Brier Pipes ; The Delights 
of Swimming ; Cooking Cookies ; Examination Questions ; Milton, 
the Classical Student ; " II Trovatore " ; Fine Needlework ; A 
Bank that is run by Women ; Pyrography ; An Excursion of the 
History Club ; Amateur Photography ; Baseball ; Making Peanut 
Brittle; Making Panocha ; Scootering; My Present Aims in Life ; 
The Preservation of Wood; Are "L' Allegro" and "II Penseroso" 
Complements or Opposites ? Masques ; My Aims in Life ; How 
to make Paper Wistaria ; Immigration ; " Winning of Barbara 
Worth " ; A Trip to Ellis Island ; Trees in Forest Park ; Milton ; 
The Arc Light; Two Modem Advertisements. (10: 122-124) 

Classificatioji of soitrces of vital topics. — A rough clas- 
sification of the fields of interest or sources of theme topics 
v^hich would probably appeal to high-school students is the 
following : i . Topics of general public interest, such as the 
Panama Canal, tariff reform, public recreation, adequate sup- 
port for the navy. 2. Topics from vocational interests, plans, 
and activities. 3. Topics from student activities and leisure 
activities, such as athletic contests, dances, the theater, auto- 
mobiles, vacation trips, etc. 4. Topics from subjects other 
than English, such as science, history, shop, etc. 

Vocational topics. — The second group, namely, the voca- 
tional, presents some of the most vital possibilities. Examples 
of the development of vocational topics are given in the 
following quotations from an article entitled '' Composition 
as Training in Thought." 

In a class of the first year the subject "What should I consider 
besides Pay in accepting a Position " is proposed. A short oral 
discussion may be necessary in the assignment, to start the ideas 
of the boys. They will suggest that such considerations as the 
kind of work, the character of the employer, the chances for ad- 
vancement, the distance of the office or factory from home, are 
essential. The pupils are then required to arrange these and any 
other topics that occur to them so that the item which for them is 
the weightiest will come at the end. This is the old principle of 



TRAINING IN EXPRESSION 275 

climax, but not in its usual Procrustean form. In treating each 
topic the boy is required to give the reasons why that considera- 
tion is for him important. The next morning the results will be 
various. Some Lilliputian, about four feet five inches in height 
and weighing nearly seventy-six pounds, will gravely declare that 
he would prefer not to have too much heavy work, such as piano 
moving, since it might make him tired before the end of the day. 
But there is certain to be lively discussion of the reasons for putting 
any subject last. The opinions will be various, but it will be found 
that each boy has some reasons of his own to support his arrange- 
ment. He has done some thinking. 

From a fourth-year class more can be expected. The subject 
" My Qualifications for the Profession of Medicine " may be pro- 
posed. Coming, as it most profitably will, in a series of vocational 
themes, it will carry with it suggestions for attacking the problem. 
At any rate, do not insist on having a paragraph or section each 
for physical, mental, and moral characteristics or qualifications. 
Such imposing of adult logic and classification on the growing 
mind does more harm than good. The boy will probably work 
his qualifications out in some such manner as this : first, because 
he has steady nerves and can go without sleep when necessary ; 
second, because in his high-school course he has always been most 
interested in biology and chemistry and like courses ; third, because 
in his summer camping he has always carried peroxide of hydrogen, 
court-plaster, and sanitary bandages, and has taken great glee in 
treating the blisters and bruises among the boys in his house or 
tent. This may be accompanied by an outline, in which the vari- 
ous ranks of ideas are indicated by the precisely right use of Roman 
and Arabic numerals, if the teacher wishes to exact such detail. The 
essential feature is that the student be made to show that each of 
these is a qualification, and how, and that he be able to defend 
the order in which he treats the topics ; that is, he must be held 
responsible for the consecutiveness of his ideas. (13 : 363-364) 

Topics from leisure interests and stndent activities. — 
The possibilities for theme topics chosen from the leisure 
interests or activities of students are easily realized. Often 
students who do not seem to have arrived at any serious 



2/6 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

purposes in life will have plenty to say regarding football 
games, school politics, plays, dances, etc. ; in fact, these 
activities furnish the chief topics concerning which they are 
spontaneously expressing themselves in their everyday con- 
versations. The chances for serious and skilled writing upon 
these topics is shown by the amount of material written about 
them in the current newspapers and magazines. 

Topics from other school subjects. — Topics from the vari- 
ous subjects of the high-school curriculum are especially good 
for many students, because they are already engaged in think- 
ing about them and are regularly expressing themselves con- 
cerning them in their class work. Hence these topics meet 
the first and fundamental need in composition, namely, some- 
thing to say. Moreover, if the various subjects are so organized 
as to include subject matter that corresponds to definite social 
needs, the training which students receive in expressing them- 
selves concerning this subject matter will be just the training 
which they need in expressing themselves concerning the 
fundamental issues in daily life. In the past it has often 
been the practice to emphasize topics chosen from literature. 
While this subject furnishes vital topics for some students, 
the other subjects, especially applied science, history, and 
civics, offer more interesting topics for others. 

Topics secured from special projects. — Special enterprises 
or projects undertaken by the school as a whole or by the 
classes in composition may occasionally furnish vital topics 
for themes. This is illustrated by an '' Experiment in the 
Teaching of High-School Composition " described in the 
School Review. As far as the choice of topics is concerned, 
the following quoted paragraphs present the essential points. 

The pupils were given the task of gathering the pioneer history 
of the community in the form of reports on specific topics. The 
particular form in which these reports were to be written was left 
to the originality and ingenuity of the pupils ; however, they were 
free to consult the teachers for suggestions at any time. The pupils 



TRAINING IN EXPRESSION 2'J^ 

were encouraged to interview the older citizens of the community, 
to examine monuments and relics, and to consult the county and 
city records, newspaper files, and printed matter relating to the 
early history of that particular section of the state. In every case 
the source of information was to be acknowledged, and quotations, 
when used, were to be properly marked. 

The reports covered such general topics as The Character of 
the Earliest Settlers ; Their Language ; Occupations ; Modes of 
Life ; Clothing ; Amusements ; Social Customs ; Institutions ; The 
Development of Leading Industries ; Notable Historic Undertak- 
ings ; and Biographies of the Citizens who had Contributed most 
to the Development of the Community. Out of these general re- 
ports such specific topics as the following were chosen for indi- 
vidual themes : The Nationality of Our Pioneers ; A Chat with 
the Earliest Settler ; The Making of a Settlement ; Cooking in 
Pioneer Days ; The Spelling Bee ; The Husking Bee ; The Sing- 
ing School ; Courtship in Pioneer Days ; Fashions in Pioneer 
Times ; The District School ; The Village Church ; A Pioneer 
Lawsuit ; The Digging of the Old Canal ; The Building of the 
First Railroad ; Trade Barons of the Early Community, etc. 
(14: 538-539) 

English teacher needs broad experience, training, and point 
of view. — The demand that topics for themes should be 
chosen from a wide range of everyday interests and activi- 
ties necessitates broad experience, training, and point of view 
on the part of the teachers of English. This point is brought 
out in the following statement by Professor F. T. Baker. 

All teachers need to know many things outside their own field, 
but the teacher of English has special need of a wide range of 
interests. If his pupils are to learn to use their language, they 
will do it only through talking interestedly about real things, real 
ideas, real issues. Mere language is nothing ; ideas in language 
are much. And to a high-school boy or to any man of affairs the 
only test of language is the effectiveness with which it does its 
work of conveying ideas to someone else who wants to hear them 
or who is made willing to hear them by the way they are put. In 



2/8 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

brief, the test of expression is that it "makes good" by establishing 
the desired connection between the speaker and hearer or between 
the writer and reader. Now it is the 7naterial that has the intrinsic 
interest, not the form ; the form derives its importance only from 
the way in which it conveys the material (I am speaking not of 
poetry but of common everyday English), and the teacher of 
English must know many ways of helping pupils to an interest in 
the things around them. This is his way of stimulating the desire 
to speak and write, and of educating his pupils through their 
speaking and writing. (3 : 342) 

Students should realize that simple, sincere themes are 
desired. — A caution of special importance to teachers is to 
make it perfectly clear to students that only the products of 
their ow^n efforts are desired, and that copied material is not 
acceptable. Students should be carefully instructed concern- 
ing the correct use of sources of information and methods 
of indicating indebtedness to sources. They should be made 
to feel that all sincere efforts at expression in their own lan- 
guage are commendable, and that the standards by which their 
themes will be judged are the average achievements of stu- 
dents of their age, not the productions of skilled adult writers. 
Neglect of these simple directions by teachers leads to dis- 
couragement on the part of many students and to dishonest 
copying of material by others. In order that a teacher may 
get correct standards which are based on the average achieve- 
ments of students, it is well to have some writing done in class 
under careful supervision. In oral composition the teacher has 
a better opportunity than in written composition to arrive at 
correct standards for judging the efforts of immature students. 

Motive for expression furnished by real audience. — The 
second factor in the technique of instruction in composition 
is the creation of real audience situations to furnish motives 
or stimuli to expression. This point is suggested, in the last 
paragraph quoted above, in the statement that '' the only test 
of language is the effectiveness with which it does its work 



TRAINING IN EXPRESSION 279 

of conveying ideas to someone else who wants to hear them 
or who is made wilhng to hear them by the way they are put." 
Hence, to secure effective training in expression, students must 
not only have something to say, but they must feel that they 
have an audience to whom it is worth while to make the 
matter clear and interesting. The instinct of communication 
is so strong in most persons that it will serve as a powerful 
stimulus in case the audience situation is provided. It would 
probably be impossible to arrange for an audience other than 
the teacher for every theme that is written, but it could easily 
be arranged to have each student stimulated periodically by 
the idea of having his classmates as an audience. This could 
be done in regular turn or by chance. In any case, every stu- 
dent should be affected, not simply the more capable writers or 
speakers. If the teacher takes the right attitude, he may often 
succeed in stimulating the students to be interested in present- 
ing their written material to him as constituting an apprecia- 
tive audience. In oral composition the stimulus of an audience 
is obviously more constant and probably more effective. 

New mfon7tation or interpretation by stndent for andience. 
— The proper provision for topics which are related to the 
real live issues of the day, in which students themselves are 
interested, will make it easy to create real audience situations. 
In order to utilize these situations the following conditions 
should prevail: (i) the student must be interested in his 
topic ; (2) he must have new information or interpretation to 
present ; (3) he must try to do this effectively to the best of his 
ability, knowing that unprepared effort will not be tolerated. 

One device for carrying out these suggestions is to permit 
students to specialize for some time upon one topic, reporting 
to the class frequently or occasionally concerning it. For ex- 
ample, in a class in New York City a Jewish boy who had 
fled from persecution in Russia related and discussed portions 
of his experiences from time to time. In another school a 
boy specialized for some time upon discussions of systems of 



28o TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

coaching athletic teams. Another speciaHzed on the con- 
struction and use of flying machines. 

Technical administration of training. — Having provided 
the two most fundamental necessities for training in expres- 
sion, namely, something to say and an audience to which it 
seems worth while to say it, the next points to be considered 
concern the more technical administration of the training in 
organizing and presenting material. 

Require students to have clear ideas to express. — The 
first essential in the actual preparation of material to be pre- 
sented is clear thinking upon the part of the student. Provided 
the student has a body of information that he is interested 
in expressing, it ought to be possible to develop some clear 
thinking in most cases. Obviously, however, if he has no in- 
formation or content, it is futile to expect clear thinking. This 
furnishes an additional reason for arranging to have students 
specialize in expressing themselves upon topics concerning 
which they are quite well informed. 

It is sometimes maintained that clear expression will follow 
as a matter of course if students have clear ideas. This is not 
the case, however. For example, many objective relationships 
may be clearly perceived and understood by a student, as in 
the case of the construction of an engine, but he may lack 
the descriptive vocabulary necessary to make these relations 
clear to an audience. Such a description might be difficult 
even for an expert in the use of language. This is shown by 
the necessity of using drawings and diagrams in scientific or 
practical treatises in order to convey the ideas which are to 
be expressed. But though we may admit that clear thinking 
may be possible without clear expression, it remains true that 
clear, original expression is impossible without clear thinking. 

Organisation in form of brief is a most essential device. — 
As an aid to clear thinking, the mechanical organization and 
arrangement of ideas upon paper in outline form is the 
most important device. This arrangement should vary from 



TRAINING IN EXPRESSION 281 

initial rough, hasty sketches, in terms of mere words and 
phrases, to a completely organized brief consisting of com- 
plete, concise statements and propositions, so paragraphed, 
numbered, and arranged in the form of main points and sub- 
points as to indicate clearly the relative rank and the degree 
of subordination of the various parts. 

Brief is a mechanical aid to clear thinking. — The arrange- 
ment of points in order and with indentation under their appro- 
priate headings shows up in a mechanical and almost certain 
way how thorough and clear the thinking of the student has 
been. At a glance obscurities and illogical arrangements may 
be detected that might easily be overlooked in a completely 
written paper, or that it would take some time to discover. 
Thus the brief is an invaluable mechanical aid to the student 
as a check upon his own thinking, and it is a mechanical aid 
and great timesaver to the teacher who reads the productions 
of the students. 

The use of such briefs in training in expression is the most 
important part of the whole activity in the type of expression 
that is being discussed here, namely, practical descriptive, ex- 
pository, and argumentative writing and speaking. If more 
emphasis were placed upon the organization of briefs and oral 
expression, and less upon completely written papers, better 
results would be achieved. It would probably be a good prac- 
tice to have two thirds of the assigned topics treated only in 
the form of briefs and oral discussions, leaving the remaining 
third to be worked up beyond the brief stage into com- 
pletely written papers. This would enable and require the 
students to spend their time upon careful thinking and organ- 
izing and upon concise phrasing of the essential ideas. 

Student must get point of view of his audience. — Having 
assured clearly organized ideas upon the part of the student, 
the next point is to get him to take the point of view of his 
probable audience and to regard his material from this angle. 
Get him to ask himself, ''How will this material appeal in its 



282 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

present form to the listeners or readers ? Will it be clear ? 
interesting? impressive?" These points of view may require 
reconstruction and reorganization of the brief, which may have 
been quite satisfactory from the standpoint of clearly organized 
thinking by the student. 

Obscure exposition re sidting from failure to do so. — The 
distinction between clear thinking by the expresser and clear, 
effective exposition, which is dependent upon keeping con- 
stantly in mind the point of view of the listener or reader, is 
illustrated constantly in daily life. Thus, in an ordinary con- 
versational report of some event which may be perfectly clear 
in the mind of the speaker we commonly find many obscuri- 
ties, which are usually due to two causes : first, lapses or omis- 
sions in the expression (that is, the speaker fails to relate 
all of the essential ideas which he has in mind) ; second, vague 
references which usually occur in the use of pronouns. These 
defects are often found in the discourses of conscientious and 
in some respects efficient teachers. The omissions by such 
speakers are particularly striking. Such omissions, as well as 
vague references, might be partially avoided if the speaker or 
writer could be trained to keep in mind the point of view of 
his audience and its progress in following his train of thought. 

Specialized personal interest srLbordinated to interest of 
audience, — The same attitude on the part of the speaker or 
writer will assist in making the material interesting to the 
audience. He should be trained to realize that his specialized 
or personal interest in the subject may not be shared by 
them, and that his method of approach should usually be 
determined by their interests, not by his. This point is com- 
monly overlooked by many amateur writers and speakers, 
with disastrous results. Its importance in practical affairs is 
illustrated in the work of the traveling salesman, who must 
approach his prospective buyer from the point of view of the 
latter's interest. It is also illustrated in political discussions, 
in the drama, and in many other activities. 



TRAINING IN EXPRESSION 283 

Persuasive expression important in politics and business. 

— The third question that the amateur expresser should ask 
himself, namely, Will the presentation be impressive ? is 
especially important in connection with certain practical 
activities, such as politics, salesmanship, and advertising. 
In such cases it is necessary not only to be clear and inter- 
esting, but also to be persuasive. The material must be 
arranged so as to be impressive and to inspire belief. Many 
students with practical or commercial tendencies would quickly 
appreciate this point and become interested in developing 
skill in persuasive writing or speaking on practical topics. 

Expressions shonld not distract attentiojiby pectdiar form. 

— A fourth and final point to be considered by the student in 
getting the point of view of his audience is to adapt his vocab- 
ulary to theirs in such a way as to avoid distracting attention 
from the thought ; that is, the language used should not be 
such as to attract undue attention in itself. Obviously, the 
language to be used would vary enormously with the character 
of the audience. If the student is writing for the general 
reader, he should be careful to use only forms of expression 
that are in good general use, and he should avoid highly 
specialized technical expressions and slang. On the other 
hand, if he is writing an account of the operation of a turbine 
engine, with a class of prospective engineers as an audience, 
his language might be quite technical ; if he is writing an 
account of a baseball game for a class of high-school boys, it 
might contain a great deal of the current slang of the game. 

The standard proposed in the preceding paragraph, namely, 
avoiding language which will distract the attention of the 
audience from the thought, will help in securing a rational 
basis for the correction of linguistic errors and will assist in 
the avoidance of pedantry in such correction. Obviously mis- 
spellings and the use of " I seen " and even colloquialisms 
like '' he won't " are undesirable, because so many general 
readers would have their attention distracted from the thought 



284 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

by such expressions. On the other hand, the use of "I will" 
and ''we will" to express simple future tense is probably jus- 
tified, since only academic lingaistic purists would notice the 
form used ; the ordinary reading public would simply get the 
thought of future action. Similarly in regard to slang ; for 
example, such an expression as '' make good " is so generally 
current that the ordinary reader gets its meaning easily with- 
out any interruption of the thought and without having his 
attention distracted by the form of expression used. 

Teachers' corrections should stress content as well as form. 
— If the student can be trained to keep in mind the neces- 
sity of getting the point of view of his audience, many of the 
formal points of rhetoric will thus be provided for. The four 
aspects mentioned in the preceding paragraphs are among the 
most important, namely, to consider whether the presentation 
will be clear, interesting, and impressive to the particular lis- 
teners or readers for whom it is intended, and whether the 
vocabulary and forms of expression used are so chosen as not 
to impede the thought or distract attention by their peculiarity. 
As far as the relation between the larger aspects of expression 
and its, more detailed formal aspects concern the teacher, the 
following advice by Professor Baker is worth considering. 

Shall [the teacher] correct themes ? Surely. But he must know 
how. He must not be fussy nor pitch his standard too high. He 
must not forget that it is the ideas rather than the form that are 
the main thing. He must not forget to put the responsibility for 
the form on the pupils as fast as possible, and to make them proof- 
read their own themes. He must himself be highly enough trained 
not only to catch, at a rapid glance, the errors and infelicities of 
expression, that are, however important, still only matters of de- 
tail ; he must be highly enough trained also to make, in rapid 
reading, valid judgments of the general qualities of thought in a 
pupil's work — to gauge it for soundness, clearness, proportion, 
interest. He must see it, indeed, as a critic sees a manuscript 
submitted for publication. (3 : 343) 



TRAINING IN EXPRESSION 285 

How to avoid snap courses in oral expression. — Train- 
ing in oral expression in English classes offers certain special 
difficulties which are worth considering. It is not uncommon 
to find prescribed courses in public speaking introduced into 
schools by administrators or faculties who recognize the large 
social value in such training, but to find them abolished after 
a few years as required courses, owing to the unsatisfactory 
way in which they are administered. The chief objection is 
that they become '' snaps " and are characterized by lack of 
serious preparation by the students outside of class and by 
waste of time listening to speakers while in class. In con- 
trast with this condition, classes in written composition usu- 
ally have the reputation of being '' hard " or '' heavy," and 
students on debating teams do very intense studying in 
preparation for their debates. In view of these facts, the 
following methods of securing more efficient training in oral 
expression in English classes have^been suggested. 

1. Give the work more definite and specific intellectual 
content by requiring students to investigate topics and write 
briefs in the same way as is done by debating teams. 

2. Associate the training in oral expression with the work 
in written composition. 

3 . Require students to study and discuss important speeches, 
legal arguments, ''selling talks," etc. from the standpoint of 
content, organization, and form of expression. 

4. Provide some type of laboratory or class organization 
so that each student speaks only to a small committee or 
group, including the teacher, thus enabling other members 
of the class to be using their time in studying. 

Experiments suggest superiority of combined training in 
oral and written composition. — The social importance of 
training in oral expression, and the desirability of ascertaining 
what results are secured when oral and WTitten composition 
are combined in various ways, have led progressive teachers 
of English to undertake experiments to determine the most 



286 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

effective methods of administering the combination. One of 
the most significant of these experiments is the work carried 
on by some twenty-five high-school teachers in IlUnois under 
the direction of a committee of which Professor J. M. Clapp 
was chairman. Each teacher conducted two parallel first-year 
classes in composition, one class taking the ordinary course 
in written composition and the other a course in which two 
thirds of the themes were oral and one third were written. 
The experiment was continued for a semester and produced 
results which were definitely in favor of the combined course 
in oral and written composition. The precise details of the 
experiment are too long to permit us to reproduce them 
here, but every English teacher should read the full ac- 
count referred to in the bibliography at the end of this 
chapter. (7 : 148-163) 

A suggestive plan for organizing '' Oral Composition as a 
Basis for Written " is described as being in use in a high 
school in St. Louis. (5 : 354-361.) In the first year three 
periods are devoted to oral composition and one to written ; 
in the second year, three to oral and two to written ; in the 
third and fourth years, two to oral and two to written. The 
author emphasizes especially the superiority of practice under 
immediate supervision, which is secured in the oral method, 
as contrasted with the long-delayed criticism of the results of 
unsupervised practice, which prevails in the ordinary method 
of teaching written composition. 

Principles of practice to be applied. — Training in expres- 
sion offers opportunities for applying the general principles 
of practice which were discussed above in Chapter VIII 
(see p. 142). The application was made there to acquiring 
motor skill, as in tossing balls or learning to use a typewriter, 
and to memorizing. I know of no experimental investigations 
of the application of these principles to training in compo- 
sition, but it would be possible to carry out the same type of 
investigation in this field. It would be complicated, however, 



TRAINING IN EXPRESSION 287 

owing to the difficulty of securing, for the quantitative meas- 
urement of progress, objective units corresponding to the 
number of letters written in typewriting or to the time con- 
sumed in memorizing. With the present condition of our 
knowledge we can simply conjecture or draw inferences con- 
cerning the application of the general principles of practice 
to training in composition. In order to do this the student 
should review pages 142-146 and consider to what extent 
the principles discussed there apply here. 

The principle of assuring a correct start would need care- 
ful interpretation. Often, as applied to composition, it has 
been interpreted to mean absolutely correct linguistic form. 
Insistence upon this has killed spontaneity and overshadowed 
the desired initial emphasis upon real, vital content and clearly 
organized ideas. 

The importance of the proper emotional tone, including 
feelings of success and satisfaction, is as great in training in 
expression as in any other kind of practice. Zeal and con- 
centration of attention are also essential. 

The best length of the unit to be used for theme assign- 
ments should be determined. If the principles summarized 
on pages 1 61-164 ^PPty here, short daily periods of writing 
or speaking should prove to be quite helpful. 

Training in expression best secured in content subjects. — 
In the first part of this chapter it was stated that in order 
to provide successful training in expression, the principles of 
such training should be applied by all teachers in all subjects 
in which students are expressing themselves. As indicated 
throughout this chapter, these principles concern primarily 
clear thinking about a body of information which the student 
possesses and which he is interested in discussing, and careful 
effort to get the point of view of his audience in order to 
make the presentation clear, interesting, and impressive. 
These principles should be applied in recitations in all sub- 
jects. If this is done and students are given opportunities to 



288 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

recite for two or more minutes, and are given sufficient time, 
when writing, to cast their thoughts into good form, the 
training secured in expression in the several subjects will 
be more influential than that secured during the specialized 
composition periods. 

Require briefs and carefully prepared contrihition recita- 
tions. — The opportunities for training in the organization of 
briefs and in oral expression are abundant in classes in his- 
tory, literature, and applied science. In these subjects there is a 
large body of interesting, available material upon which special 
individual assignments for reports can be based. By this 
arrangement the two essentials, namely, vital content and the 
audience situations, can easily be secured. Each student pre- 
pares significant material that is new to the rest of the class, 
on a topic that is of general interest. The main points are 
organized in the form of a brief which the teacher should 
examine in advance in many cases. When the point in the 
discussion is reached upon which each student's material bears, 
he is called upon to present it. Such reports may vary from 
two or three minutes to thirty minutes in length. The longer 
reports should be presented only after several individual con- 
ferences with the teacher. 

In classes where the teacher is skilled in organizing such 
contribution recitations, the efficiency developed in oral expo- 
sition by the students is surprising to one who has never seen 
the method used. If in any school the teachers of English, 
the principal, and the teachers of the content subjects who 
have some skill or interest in organizing such training as has 
been described would get together and plan to make the train- 
ing as efficient as possible, certain standard conditions would 
be developed which would assure much more valuable results 
in oral and written expression than could possibly be secured 
by the most efficient English department working alone. 

Cooperating teachers do not need technical skill in Eng- 
lish. — One special advantage of this scheme for cooperative 



TRAINING IN EXPRESSION 289 

training in expression is that it does not demand of the teachers 
of the content subjects knowledge of the technical points in 
grammar and rhetoric. It simply requires that each teacher 
be able to assist students in securing clear, interesting, and 
impressive presentations of material with which the teacher 
is familiar. As a preliminary step to this presentation the 
scheme requires the checking up and criticizing of carefully 
organized briefs as objective evidence of the investigating, 
thinking, and organizing which has been done by the stu- 
dents. Many teachers who would be unsuccessful in detect- 
ing the less glaring grammatical errors would be entirely 
capable of administering this scheme. I have seen it used 
successfully in high school, and have always used it in some 
of my own classes. Other aspects of it will be discussed in 
a later chapter. We are concerned here only with the oppor- 
tunities which it offers for training in expression. 

Cooperation in formal training by reference to English de- 
partment. — Cooperative training in the more formal aspects 
of expression should also be organized in high-school classes. 
Only competent teachers of English, however, are capable 
of administering these more technical aspects of the training, 
but the teaching should be so organized as to bring their skill 
to bear upon the productions of the students in all of the 
classes. The possibilities of successfully organizing such a 
scheme are discussed at length by J. F. Hosic in an article 
entitled '' Cooperation of all Departments in the Teaching of 
English Composition." Descriptions of two examples of suc- 
cessful plans are given and should be read by students. The 
final paragraph sums up the matter in the following words : 

To summarize : Cooperation in English composition, to be suc- 
cessful, must be organized and administered by the head of the 
school for the good of all. This will involve the setting-up of com- 
mon aims and the establishing of suitable working conditions. 
Instruction in the technique of speaking and writing should be re- 
garded as the work of the teachers of English. Teachers of other 



290 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

subjects should refuse to accept oral reports or written papers 
which are below the standards agreed upon. If the delinquent 
student fails to repair the deficiency, he should be reported to the 
principal and sent to the English department for further training. 
In matters of substance, particularly clearness and completeness, 
the teacher of each subject should point out the weakness, cause 
it to be removed, and apportion credit to the paper in accordance 
with the degree of success attained. By means of class visitation 
and conference, teachers of English and of other subjects should 
seek to join their efforts so as to accomplish the most effective 
training of the student in the arts of study and of expression with 
the greatest economy of his time and the most consistent unifying 
of his life. (12 : 607) 

Need simple manuals of the essentials of English expres- 
sion. — For all who are concerned in training in verbal ex- 
pression (namely, teachers of English, cooperating teachers 
in other subjects, and students) there is needed a simple text 
or syllabus of the most essential points to be observed. Most 
grammars, rhetorics, stylebooks, and manuals for writers have 
been too complete and too technical to be of much service to 
the persons mentioned in the preceding sentence. Even 
teachers of English in high schools are often quite untrained 
for their special work, and the books which they use with 
the students become in their hands primarily compendiums 
of information to be learned, instead of manuals to guide and 
improve practice. Such books are even less useful for coop- 
erating teachers and for students. Teachers in large city high 
schools or large, well-organized normal schools, who are ad- 
ministering successful cooperative schemes for training in 
verbal expression, would perform a very useful service for 
other teachers by preparing such manuals of the essentials in 
expression, in such a form as to be of real practical use to 
high-school students. They should be notable for what they 
omit as well as for what they contain. (See 13 a for an ex- 
ample of a good manual of practice.) 



TRAINING IN EXPRESSION 291 

General principles of expression apply to drawing. — Up 
to this point we have been concerned primarily with training 
in oral and written expression. As stated in the beginning 
of the chapter, there is only one other type of expression that 
is in sufficiently general use to justify discussing it in this 
chapter, namely, drawing, or graphic expression. Many of 
the same principles as have been advanced in discussing verbal 
expression would apply to graphic expression. This would be 
true of the following principles : ( i ) to provide vital content ; 
(2) to make sure that the pupils have clear ideas to be ex- 
pressed ; (3) to provide an audience situation ; (4) to apply the 
rules of practice ; (5) to cooperate with other departments in 
which drawing would be a really useful instrument of expres- 
sion. Obviously the application of these principles involves 
regarding drawing primarily as an instrument of expression. 
Very often drawing is taught simply as the mastery of a tech- 
nique of producing aesthetically pleasing effects, the initial 
stages in the training involving almost no vital content of the 
same order as is expressed in language. Such a method of 
teaching drawing parallels very closely the purely formal lin- 
guistic methods to which reference was made above. From 
the standpoint of recent progressive developments in general 
educational theory and in the teaching of drawing it would 
seem that the teaching of this subject according to the gen- 
eral principles of training in expression advocated above 
would be much more successful with general students than 
the formal methods of teaching would be. A somewhat tech- 
nical contrast of the two methods is presented in the follow- 
ing review, by Professor Walter Sargent, of a book on the 
teaching of art. 

[The author] designates [his] plan as a synthetic method — a 
method of building up given material, such as lines, shapes, tones, 
and colors, into forms of aesthetic expression. This method is con- 
trasted with what is termed the analytic or academic method, which 
consists in drawing from nature to acquire a knowledge of facts of 



292 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

appearance, and skill in representing these facts. Following the 
analytic method, the student would begin by observing and record- 
ing facts of appearance, to be used later as a medium of expres- 
sion. By the synthetic method the student begins by arranging 
lines, shapes, and tones so as to build up harmonious combinations. 
He accompanies this practice with drawing from nature in order 
to obtain data to render these lines and shapes significant in ex- 
pression as well as beautiful in arrangement. 

[The author] has rendered an important service to art educa- 
tion in thus sharply contrasting the interest in recording objective 
facts as they appear to the eye with the interest in harmonious 
arrangement of forms so that they produce aesthetic satisfaction. 
He rightly insists that the principles of arrangement of lines, 
spaces, and tones have a logic of their own, which produces 
aesthetic pleasure and which is in large degree distinct from any 
consideration of the subject matter which those lines represent. 
He emphasizes the truth that no amount of industry or skill along 
the line of literal representation can by itself produce the full 
range of artistic expression. 

The principles expressed in the book are concretely set forth in 
a series of exercises suitable for different grades and adapted to 
give acquaintance with, and ability to use, the elements of artistic 
expression. 

While accepting [the author's] distinction between the interest 
in representing appearances and the interest in harmonious arrange- 
ment of form, one questions whether a certain loss to art w^ould 
not result from limiting the"" value of literal drawing from objects 
merely to that of securing data to give significance to compositions 
which would otherwise be abstract, and whether practice in con- 
scientious analysis of actual appearances has not made a contribu- 
tion to art which the approach by principles of design does not 
include. The history of art seems to indicate that the close study 
of a bit of reality in order to lay hold upon its meaning and tran- 
scribe its characteristics without regard to artistic composition often 
leads one beyond the scientific interest in securing information and 
into an interest in the individual significance of that object, into a 
sympathetic attitude toward that particular portion of reality, and 
thus into a genuine aesthetic experience of a sort which initiates 



TRAINING IN EXPRESSION 293 

the style of expression and does not merely furnish data to make 
significant the otherwise abstract elements of a decorative con- 
vention. (15 : 455) 

Drawing used as ait aid in various subjects. — It has 
become quite common to use drawing as an aid in studying 
the biological sciences (botany, zoology, etc.), but there are 
possibilities of using it as an aid in other subjects, of which 
advantage is not ordinarily taken. In geography the repre- 
sentation of contours by contour lines and by shaded pencil 
or chalk drawings is very helpful. In history, maps of vari- 
ous sorts and sketches of buildings, weapons, etc. may be 
made by the students to advantage. In technical high schools 
where students are given training in drawing, cooperative 
teaching which utilizes such opportunities as have been men- 
tioned is not uncommon. In other high schools the oppor- 
tunities to use drawing as a means of expression in the 
various subjects are commonly neglected. 

Conclusion of discussion of training in expression. — This 
will conclude our discussion of training in expression. We 
have emphasized the social importance of such training, and 
have indicated that efficient methods of instruction in ex- 
pression must take their point of departure from the discus- 
sion by students of fundamental, vital issues which are worthy 
of presentation in a clear, interesting, and impressive manner 
to the class as a real audience. The best training can be 
secured by the organization of standardized ''contribution reci- 
tations " in all of the content subjects. In the regular English 
classes topics chosen from these other subjects and from the 
vocational and leisure interests of the students can be used 
effectively. In all cases clear thinking, which is stimulated and 
assisted by the organization of material in the form of briefs, 
is fundamental in the preparation of material for presentation. 

This chapter will conclude our discussion of the five special 
aspects or types of learning which we have distinguished, 



294 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

namely, acquiring motor skill, associating symbols and mean- 
ings, reflective thinking, acquiring habits of enjoyment, and 
acquiring skill in expression. In the next two chapters we 
shall continue the discussion of the learning process, in some 
of its more general aspects, under the headings self-activity 
and apperception, and changes in methods of learning with 
increasing age of the students. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES 

\ General, i. Dewey, John. How We Think. (D. C. Heath & Co., 
1 910.) Pp. 178-187, Fundamental principles of training in using 
language. 

2. Thorndike, E. L. Pf-mciples of Teaching. (A. G. Seiler, 1905.) 
Chap, xiii, pp. 206-218. The best eclectic treatment of the value of 
various forms of expression, 
r Special references. 3. Baker, F. T. The Teacher of English. 
English J OMt'ual., June, 191 3, Vol. II, pp. 335-343. 

4. Canby, H. S., and others. English Coniposition. (The Mac- 
millan Company, 191 1.) Stresses exposition as of first importance for 
most students. 

5. Chiles, E. E. Oral Composition as a Basis for Written. Etig- 
lish Journal, June, 1914, Vol. Ill, pp. 354-361. 

6. Chubb, P. The Menace of Pedantry in Teaching English. 
School Review., January, 191 2, Vol. XX, pp. 34-45. 

7. Clapp, J. M. Report of Experiment in Combining Oral and 
Written Composition. University of Illinois Bulletin., Vol. XI, No. 1 7, 
pp. 148-163. (University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois.) 

8. Cole, W. M. The Vital in Teaching EngHsh. School Review., 
September, 1906, Vol. XIV, pp. 469-483. 

9. English Journal, the official organ of the National Council of 
English Teachers. (Published by The University of Chicago Press.) 
Should be read regularly by all teachers of English. 

\ 10. Gaston, C. R. Discovering Human Interests. English Journal.^ 
February, 191 3, Vol. II, pp. 122-124. 

1 1 . Hannel, W. C. a. Drawing and its Relation to Arts and Crafts 
in the Public Schools. Proceedings of the National Education Associa- 
tion, 1 910, pp. 635-642. Discusses use of drawing in various subjects. 

^ 12. Hosic, J. F. Cooperation of all Departments in the Teaching 

of English Composition. School Review., November, 191 3, Vol. XXI, 
pp. 598-607. 



TRAINING IN EXPRESSION 295 

\ 13. Miles, D. Composition as a Training in Thought. English 
Journal, June, 191 3, Vol. II, pp. 362-365. 

I3<3:. Neal, R. W. Thought Building in Compositioji, a Practical 
Manual. (The Macmillan Company.) An excellent book. 

14. Reavis, W. C. An Experiment in the Teaching of High-School 
Composition. School Review, October, 191 3, Vol. XXI, pp. 538-541. 

15. Sargent, W. Review of a book on the teaching of drawing. 
Ele7nentary School Teacher, May, 191 3, Vol. XIII, p. 455. 



CHAPTER XII 

SELF-ACTIVITY AND APPERCEPTION 

Main points of the chapter. — i . The principles of self-activity and 
apperception apply to all of the special types of learning discussed 
in the preceding chapters. 

2. To apply the principle of self-activity (namely, that the stu- 
dent is educated by his own responses), the teacher must make sure 
that the type of mental response or mental activity expected of the 
pupil has actually occurred. 

3. The student's words are often unreliable evidence of his 
mental processes. 

4. Apperception is used here to designate the general fact that 
an individual's response to a given stimulus is determined by {a) his 
past experience and {J?) his present frame of mind. 

5. The teacher must be sure that the exercises in all types of 
learning are adapted to the past experience and stage of develop- 
ment of the student, in order to call forth the desired responses. 

6. The teacher must also endeavor to put the student in the 
frame of mind best suited to the particular type of mental response 
which is desired or expected at the time. 

Explicit treatment to supplement earlier references. — In 

this chapter we shall take up briefly two general aspects of 
the learning process, namely, self-activity and the principle 
of apperception. These aspects have been referred to inci- 
dentally in the preceding chapters which deal with special 
types of learning, but it is desirable to give them more ex- 
plicit treatment here in order to bring out their more general 
meaning and application. 

Self -activity : student is educated by his own responses. 
■—The first principle, namely, that designated by the term 

296 



SELF-ACTIVITY AND APPERCEPTION 297 

self -activity , means the general fact that students are educated 
by their own mental responses, not by the stimuli or influences 
provided by the teacher. The latter are influential in deter- 
mining the individual's character only through the responses 
which they arouse. If the desired educative response is not 
made by the student's mind, the stimulus is not educative. 
Obvious illustrations are found by comparing the responses 
of students who are inattentive with those of students who are 
alert, thoughtful, and attentive. In both cases the teacher's 
words or the words in the book affect the sense organs in 
similar ways. In the case of the inattentive student, however, 
the words ''go in one ear and out the other." They arouse 
little mental response ; hence they are not grasped or re- 
tained. On the other hand, the alert, attentive student re- 
sponds actively by grasping the stimulus and working it 
over. His mental response is large or intense, and, if worth 
while, it is educative. 

Self -activity in various types of learning. Motor skill. — 
As stated above, this influence of the student's own responses 
has been referred to in the discussion of each special type of 
learning. Thus, in acquiring motor skill it is obvious that the 
student learns through doing — for example, by actual practice 
in tossing balls or using the typewriter. However, it is not 
simply the physical act that develops his skill, but the mental 
control. A student would make little progress from simply 
having the teacher hold his (the student's) hands or fingers 
and put them through the movements. This is evident to 
a learner when someone tries to teach him a tennis or golf 
or swimming stroke by guiding his arms. It may help some- 
what in enabling the individual to recognize the desired move- 
ment when he succeeds in making it by trial and error. This 
was shown by Bair's experiments on electrically stimulating 
the movements of the ears (see above, p. 103). But such a 
stimulation did not enable the learner to proceed to make the 
movement. It did help him to recognize and select it after 



298 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

he had succeeded in making it as the result of trial and error. 
In general, the mental impulse to the movement and the 
critical evaluation, by the learner, of its form and result are 
the important factors in acquiring motor skill and are clear 
illustrations of the principle of self-activity. 

Leanimg a vocabulary. — Similarly, in learning a foreign 
language by the direct method it is not sufficient simply to 
provide the proper stimulus, namely, '' meaning plus foreign 
symbol." It is desirable that the student have abundant oppor- 
tunity to initiate the response ''foreign symbol" to a meaning 
which he has in mind to express, or to initiate the response 
'"meaning" to a foreign symbol which has been presented (see 
above, p. 125, for diagrams). Although these ends can be se- 
cured by silent study, they are most surely secured by giving 
students ample opportunities to speak the foreign tongue. 
Hence, we noted that the teacher of a foreign language should 
suppress any tendency to monopolize the time in class and 
should make all students talk as much as possible. 

Practice. — In our discussion of practice or drill we noticed 
that progress in learning was rapid only when the learner 
was concentrating his attention on the process — that is, when 
his mental response was active and intense. Mere mechanical 
fingering of the typewriter did not increase his speed. Simi- 
larly, in memorizing, we noticed that all conditions which 
increased the concentration of attention increased corre- 
spondingly the speed or economy in learning. 

Reflective thinking. — In discussing reflective thinking we 
noted especially the necessity of giving the slow pupils op- 
portunity to do active problem-solving and analytical selective 
thinking. In teaching geometry, for example, if we desire 
to secure training in reasoning we must get the pupils to be 
self-actively reasoning (that is, to be making mental responses 
of this type). This can be done only by proceeding through 
the first book of the geometry very slowly, treating most prop- 
ositions as exercises or problems to be solved, not merely 



SELF-ACTIVITY AND APPERCEPTION 299 

as proofs to be learned. When the ordinary method of merely 
having students learn the proofs or demonstrations is followed, 
the alert, rapid, original thinker may anticipate or supplement 
the reasoning done by the teacher or outlined in the textbook 
to such an extent that he is constantly making the reasoned 
mental responses which are contemplated in the training. 
This is not the case, however, with the slow, unoriginal 
thinker who merely memorizes the proofs. 

Acquiring habits of enjoyment. — In discussing the devel- 
opment of habits of enjoyment we noted that actual mental 
responses of enjoyment are the essential factor throughout 
the process — not some other type of response, such as in- 
formation, or conversation, or disgust. 

Training in expression. — Similarly, in discussing training 
in expression, in the immediately preceding chapter, it was 
shown that the essential educative situation is '' the student 
with ideas of his own to express plus independent recall of 
words with which to express them " ; that is, the essential 
educative mental response in training in expression is the 
making, by the student, of the connection between ideas and 
words. Unless he is self-actively doing this, he is not securing 
economical effective training in expression. 

To recapitulate, in various types of training we wish to 
secure certain special forms of mental response — control in 
motor skill, association of symbols and meanings, reflective 
thinking, enjoyment, expression. In applying the principle 
of self-activity we must make sure that the desired response 
by the student is actually made. If it occurs in an intense 
form (that is, associated with zeal and concentration of atten- 
tion), it is more effective. 

Student ^s words often unreliable evidence of his mental 
activity. — Ordinarily, in teaching that aims to secure re- 
sponses of meaning, or active reflective thought, or enjoy- 
ment, or expression, the teacher must judge, by the words 
which the student utters, whether the desired mental response 



300 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

has been made ; that is, the student speaks or writes, and the 
teacher infers from this that a certain type of mental response 
has preceded. Very often the inference by the teacher is in- 
correct. Thus, a student repeats the definition of a technical 
abstract term. The teacher assumes that he has its meaning 
in mind, but this may not be true. In geometry a student 
reproduces a geometry proof. It is generally assumed that 
he has made the desired mental response, namely, reflective 
thinking. Very commonly he has not ; instead he has simply 
memorized figures, words, and other symbols. While aim- 
ing to secure enjoyment the teacher gets from the student 
information about a book and assumes that it" is evidence 
of enjoyment. The emotional response may have been just 
the opposite. In training in composition, a student hands 
in a theme and the teacher assumes that it is the expres- 
sion of the student's own experiences or ideas, in his own 
words ; instead, it may be simply a copy of material found 
in a book. 

Teacher must skillfidly keep check on individiiaVs re- 
sponses. — In view of these facts the teacher must be con- 
stantly alert to make sure that the desired mental response is 
made by every pupil. To do this requires great skill and 
ingenuity, and a large part of the time spent in school should 
be devoted to getting a check upon and directing the 
mental responses of individuals. The methods of doing this 
economically and effectively will be discussed in later chapters 
on individual instruction and supervised study. 

Apperception : response determined by past experience and 
by present frame of mind. — The responses which a student 
makes will depend upon two factors; namely, (i) his past ex- 
perience and (2) his present frame of mind. This statement 
is known as the principle of apperception, and the teacher 
should keep it constantly in mind in planning and adminis- 
tering instruction which is intended to secure certain specific 
educative responses. 



SELF-ACTIVITY AND APPERCEPTION 301 

Illustrated by vafied interpretations of words. — A few 
examples will make clear the influence of the two factors ; 
namely, past experience and the present frame of mind. 
The influence of past experience in determining the re- 
sponses to a given stimulus is commonly illustrated by the 
different mental responses made to the same word by persons 
of different training. A stock example is the interpretation 
of the word bay when heard by a horse dealer, a carpenter, 
a boy studying geography, and a student of domestic science 
(the latter may think of the bay leaf used in seasoning). The 
influence of the present frame of mind may be illustrated by 
the same word, because we can be sure of quite similar mental 
responses from all of these persons if we say, '' Students in 
geography must be able to define lake, river, bay, etc." The 
first part of the sentence tends to put them in similar frames 
of mind, so that they all think of bay as a body of water. The 
student can readily think of many other homonyms that will 
illustrate the same general fact of apperception. 

Emotional responses also illnstrate apperception. — Other 
types of mental response than the intellectual may also be 
used to illustrate the principle of apperception. For example, 
owing to differences in previous experience, the emotional 
responses aroused in the minds of Northerners and South- 
erners during the Civil War were quite different when such 
words as Lincoln, Jefferson Davis, abolition, states' lights, 
etc. were heard. The influence of the present frame of mind 
in determining an emotional response is shown by the type 
of casual greeting extended to a friend when meeting him 
during the hurly-burly of business hours, as contrasted with 
the enthusiastic, interested attitude when meeting him during 
leisure time. 

Influence of past experience. Teacher mnst consider the 
sttidenfs vocabulary. — The first pedagogical point to notice 
in connection with the principle of apperception is that the 
teacher should carefully ascertain whether students have had 



302 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

the past experience necessary to provide the desired re- 
sponses. This is most easily illustrated in connection with 
students understanding the meanings of words used in in- 
struction. The vocabularies of students of different ages 
and training vary enormously, and a teacher often fails to 
realize that words which he understands are strange to the 
students. Consider, for example, the following ordinary 
words, which are arranged roughly in the order of decreas- 
ing familiarity : pink, fifty, anger, sympathy, number, dumb- 
waiter, pollen, virtue, justice, momentum, aftermath, scenario, 
scholasticism, nominalism, fourth dimension, apperception. 
A college graduate would probably understand all of these 
and be able to use most of them, but most high-school stu- 
dents would lack the past experience necessary to an under- 
standing of several of the words toward the end of the list. 
Some children entering the primary grades might not under- 
stand any of them. 

Meanings of words are secured only through relevant 
experiences. — The general fact concerning the dependence 
upon experience for the meanings of words is discussed by 
Dewey as follows : 

[Words or symbols] stand for [their] meanings to any individual 
only when he has had experience of some situation to which these 
meanings are actually relevant. Words can detach and preserve 
a meaning only when the meaning has been first involved in our 
own direct intercourse with things. To attempt to give a meaning 
through a word alone, without any dealings with a thing, is to de- 
prive the word of intelligible signification ; against this attempt (a 
tendency only too prevalent in education) reformers have protested. 
Moreover, there is a tendency to assume that whenever there is a 
definite word or form of speech there is also a definite idea, while, 
as a matter of fact, adults and children alike are capable of using 
even precise verbal formulae with only the vaguest and most con- 
fused sense of what they mean. Genuine ignorance is more profit- 
able because likely to be accompanied by humility, curiosity, and 



SELF-ACTIVITY AND APPERCEPTION 303 

open-mindedness, while ability to repeat catch phrases, cant terms, 
familiar propositions, gives the conceit of learning and coats the 
mind with a varnish waterproof to new ideas. (4: 176-177) 

Examples of misinterpretation of histoncal statement. — 
There are hundreds of current examples of the failure of 
students to get the meanings of statements which they learn 
in their lessons and recite glibly to the teacher. For instance, 
a prominent American educator relates that in the upper 
grades of the elementary school he learned the statement 
that the invention of the cotton gin fastened slavery upon 
the South. The only gin of which he had any knowledge 
was the liquor to which he had heard his parents refer as 
being a terrible thing to drink. Hence he concluded that the 
invention of a liquor made from cotton, which was known 
as cotton gin and drunk by the negroes, somehow fastened 
slavery upon the South. In later years he contrasted the way 
he was taught with the modern method of making clear to 
students the difficulties of separating cotton from the seeds and 
the various stages in the development of ginning machinery. 

All instruction must be adapted to experience and develop- 
ment of students. — The phase of the principle of appercep- 
tion which we have been discussing is easily applied in detail to 
high-school instruction. Since all instruction must be adapted 
to the past experience of the students, we must make sure 
that they have had the detailed personal experiences necessary 
to enable them to grasp the abstract and general meanings 
which we may be trying to teach ; that the problems which 
we expect them to solve involve relationships with which they 
are familiar and which are within the range of their ability ; 
that the music and literature which they are expected to enjoy 
are adapted to the stage of development that they have reached, 
that is, are built upon the habits of enjoyment which they 
already possess ; and that topics for themes are drawn from 
the typical activities of adolescent boys and girls. 



304 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

Endeavor to iLtilize out-of -school experiences. — To make 
these applications skillfully it is necessary for the high-school 
teacher to become a close student of the characteristics and 
experiences of high-school students, not only in school but 
out of school. The necessity of linking up instruction with 
out-of-school experiences is emphasized by Dewey in the 
following quotation : 

All students of psychology are familiar with the principle of ap- 
perception — that we assimilate new material with what we have 
digested and retained from prior experiences. Now the " apper- 
ceptive basis " of material furnished by teacher and textbook should 
be found as far as possible in what the learner has derived from 
more direct forms of his own experience. There is a tendency to 
connect material of the schoolroom simply with the material of 
prior school lessons, instead of linking it to what the pupil has 
acquired in his out-of-school experience. The teacher says, '^ Do 
you not remember what we learned from the book last week ?" in- 
stead of saying, " Do you not recall such and such a thing that 
you have seen or heard ? " As a result there are built up de- 
tached and independent systems of school knowledge that inertly 
overlay the ordinary systems of experience instead of reacting to 
enlarge.and refine them. Pupils are taught to live in two separate 
worlds, one the world of out-of-school experience, the other the 
world of books and lessons. (4 : 199) 

Influence of present frame of mind. Example of mistake 
in reading. — We shall now turn from the discussion of the 
influence of past experience to a consideration of the second 
factor in determining a person's response to a situation ; namely, 
his present frame of mind. This was illustrated above in con- 
nection with the word bay, but additional examples maybe given 
here to assist in getting the idea clearly in mind. The following 
incident from my own experience will serve this purpose. 

I was riding in a train and happened to look over the shoulder 
of the man in front of me at the newspaper which he was reading. 



SELF-ACTIVITY AND APPERCEPTION 305 

I could just see the top of the paper and read there the following 
large headline, extending clear across the page : 

GOOD HATS A QUARTER 

Inasmuch as T always take advantage of end-of-the-season reduc- 
tion sales of men's furnishings, this statement interested me (al- 
though good hats for a quarter seemed impossible) and I decided 
to look into the matter further when I got a chance. Soon the man 
left his seat to go into the smoking car. I picked up his paper and, 
turning to the desired page, found that instead of reading 

GOOD HATS A QUARTER 

the headline read 

GOD HATES A QUITTER 

It was Monday morning, and the paper in question contained 
reports of Sunday sermons printed with large-type headlines run- 
ning clear across the page. If I had been in the religious frame 
of mind at the time, instead of the bargain-hunting frame of mind, 
I might have read the headline correctly at the first glance. 

Present mental backgrotmd determines interpretation. — 
The whole matter of the influence of mental backgrounds 
upon the interpretation of a given stimulus is well discussed 
by Adams in his '' Exposition and Illustration in Teaching." 
He says that an idea 

must take a different meaning according to the mental background 
against which it is projected. The presented content may be quite 
neutral or it may have a positive tone of its own [to use terms bor- 
row^ed from the field of color] . In both cases the new idea or ideas 
must submit to a modification of tone or meaning from the effect 
of the background. 

Take some such colorless sentence as " Think of him," and 
note the difference effected by projecting it against the following 
backgrounds : 

A picture in Life of a low-class photographer trying to encourage 
a pleasant expression on his female sitter's face, 

A widow laying flowers on a grave and addressing her little girl, 



3o6 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

A religious revival meeting. 

A French schoolmaster during the PYanco-Prussian War pointing 
to a portrait of the first Napoleon. 

A conspirators' meeting where a traitor's name has been 
mentioned. 

A crowd of starving '' unemployed " watching the mayor pass 
from his carriage to a city banquet. (1 : 93) 

Examples of students misinterpreting questions. — Peda- 
gogical examples of the principle that an individual's men- 
tal response is influenced by his present frame of mind are 
numerous. Even when the students have had the adequate 
past experience for making the desired response, it is often 
not secured by the teacher, because the present mental 
conditions are unfavorable. Hence, Adams says : 

Young teachers in particular soon discover that their questions 
do not produce the answers they were intended to elicit. A ques- 
tion is asked, for example, the answer to which is known to be 
within „.the range of the pupil's knowledge. There is no doubt 
about the matter. The teacher knows from immediately preceding 
experience that the answer is in the pupil's mind only waiting to 
be drawn out. Indeed, the question may be fairly regarded as 
nothing more than a stage in the process of making clear and dis- 
tinct an idea that the pupil already possesses, though in a vague 
way. The question is, however, so expressed that the pupil, with 
the best intention in the world, cannot discover against which back- 
ground he is expected to project the ideas concerned. Accordingly 
he projects them against the first available background, in the hope 
that this may be the right one. 

" Where was St. Paul converted ? " asks the teacher, speaking 
from a geographical background. " In the ninth chapter of the 
Acts," responds the pupil, from a background of textual reference. 
In testing the intelligence of a class the inspector asks, " Where 
do you find gates t " The pupil, from a background made up of 
puzzling experiences of the Socratic method, answers : " We don't 
find gates; we make them." From a historico-geographical back- 
ground the inspector desired to elicit the deleterious effect of a 



SELF-ACTIVITY AND APPERCEPTION 307 

large town on the purity of a river. He brought out the fact that 
Robert the Bruce [127 4- 1329] spent his latter years at Roseneath 
on the Clyde in Scotland, and that as a recreation he very prob- 
ably — according to the inspector — fished in the river. The ques- 
tion that was to incriminate those who were responsible for the 
pollution of the Clyde took the form, " Why could n't the Bruce 
fish there now ? " From a background of plain common sense 
came the reply, " Because he 's dead." (1 : 96) 

Teacher must put students in proper frame of mind. — 
These examples make it evident that it is the teacher's busi- 
ness to see that pupils are put into the proper frame of mind 
to make the general type of educative responses that he de- 
sires. This is particularly important (i) at the beginning of 
a period of instruction, (2) in taking up a new topic, (3) in 
making transitions in the continuous treatment of a topic. 
In the case of intellectual instruction such a preparation of 
the pupil's mind commonly involves an introductory or tran- 
sitional discussion w^hich will inform the students concerning 
the purposes of the lesson, the problems to be discussed^- their 
general significance or bearing, etc. This notion of prepara- 
tion was especially emphasized by Herbart (i 776-1 841), the 
great German educational reformer, and by his followers. One 
of Herbart' s statements concerning the matter is the following : 

A rule of vital importance is that, before setting his pupils at 
work, the teacher should take them into the field of ideas wherein 
their work is to be done. He can accomplish this at the beginning 
of a recitation hour by means of a brief outline view of the ground 
to be covered in the lesson or lecture. 

Preparatoiy step may iitchcde disaission of purpose of 
lesson. — The technique of the initial, or preparatory, step 
in the teaching of lessons has been very extensively discussed 
by the followers of Herbart. Their contention has usually 
taken the form of an assertion that the aim of the lesson 
should be stated at the beginning and should be considered 



3o8 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

until it is clearly appreciated by the students. If this conten- 
tion is interpreted in a common-sense way and the discussion 
of the aim provided when necessary, it establishes a good 
practice. Sometimes, however, the idea is carried out so 
formally and insistently that the real psychological purpose 
of the step is lost sight of and it becomes a mere pedagogic 
rite. As an extreme example of such a situation Adams 
cites the case of a German Herbartian teacher who began 
with the following statement of the aim : '' Our object in 
to-day's lesson is to see what happened next." 

Student shotdd knozv zvhither he is going. — The following 
rule stated by Adams presents a safe and desirable basis for 
administering the step of preparation. ''The essential point 
is that the pupil should know whither he is going, so that he 
may cooperate with the teacher and do his fair share of the 
work." Very often students at the beginning of a period will 
have in mind the discussion that is to be continued from a 
previous period, and will take up and pursue the line of 
thought effectively without a restatement of the aim of the 
discussion. The teacher, however, should always remember 
to make sure that the appropriate initial mental attitude does 
exist as described by Adams. 

In reflective thought the problem must be realized. — The 
importance of keeping the aim of the lesson clearly in mind 
when the purpose is the solution of a problem has already 
been discussed at length in the chapter on reflective thinking 
(see p. 185) and need not be repeated here. The following 
statement from Dewey's ''How We Think" will serve to 
recall to the student the general point of departure for 
instruction which involves reflective thought. 

The best, indeed the only, preparation is arousal to a perception 
of something that needs explanation — something unexpected, puz- 
zling, peculiar. When the feeling of a genuine perplexity lays hold 
of any mind (no matter how the feeling arises), that mind is alert 
and inquiring, because stimulated from within. The shock, the bite, 



SELF-ACTIVITY AND APPERCEPTION 309 

of a question will force the mind to go wherever it is capable of 
going, better than will the mo^ ingenious pedagogical devices un- 
accompanied by this mental ardor. It is the sense of a problem 
that forces the mind to a survey and recall of the past to discover 
what the question- means and how it may be dealt with. (4 : 207) 

Avoid nndesirable elaboration of preparatory step. — Dewey 
continues his discussion by giving certain cautions concerning 
the tendency to elaborate the preparatory step beyond reason- 
able limits. The teacher or reader who is interested in a more 
thorough critical treatment of this phase of method should 
read Dewey's discussion and compare it with pages 81-117 
in McMurry's ''Method of the Recitation." 

Main issue or problem not ahvays approached directly. — 
Adams, writing in 19 10, presents some examples to show 
that even in reflective thinking or problem-solving the main 
issue need not always be presented at the beginning, but in- 
stead some minor problem may be taken up which will serve 
as a more interesting or significant approach to the main 
issue than would a direct statement of the main problem in 
its abstract form. Thus, he says : 

The expositor [the teacher in this case] wishes to produce a 
certain arrangement of ideas in the mind of another ; the begin- 
ning that lends itself best to the production of this arrangement is 
the best. 

The teacher in an English school begins, for instance, with a 
blackboard full of figures from the Board of Trade returns for the 
past ten years, from which the pupils are invited to discover which 
are Britain's best customers in the matter of buying her goods. 
Various ups and downs are noticed and causes suggested. One 
sudden fall is unaccounted for. Toward the end of 1906 Italy be- 
gan to buy a good deal less from Britain. The fall is not temporary, 
for there has been no corresponding rise since. Italy is not hostile 
to Britain; rather the contrary. The cause must be sought else- 
where. More figures are submitted, from which it appears that 
what Britain has lost, Germany has gained. But why this sudden 



3IO TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

change ? Germany is no nearer Italy than it was before ;. there 
has been no quarrel with British goods ; the Germans may be better 
at pushing goods, but there was no sudden increase in their su- 
periority at that time. Gradually the search is narrowed down to 
something peculiar that belonged to that year, and the opening of 
the Simplon Tunnel [through the Alps] in May, 1906, is sug- 
gested. Since this beginning occurs in a lesson in commercial 
geography, the tunnel is approached from the proper point. . . . 

A problem of this kind is often an excellent way of beginning 
an exposition. Instead of starting straightway with the subject of 
the difference between the development of the federal system in 
England and in France, the problem might be suggested. Why are 
there hedgerows in England and not in France ? In answering this 
interesting question all the essential points of difference emerge, 
and the incentive of a well-defined purpose is maintained through- 
out the lesson. (1: 181-182) 

Preparatory step in other types of learning. — The ex- 
amples so far given have practically all been illustrations of 
putting the pupil in the right frame of mind for reflective 
thinking. This is the type of learning that is commonly 
stressed in discussions of the preparatory step in the giving 
of lessons. What shall be said, however, about the other 
four types of learning which we discussed ; namely, acquiring 
motor skill, learning a foreign vocabulary, acquiring habits 
of enjoyment, and training in expression .? Obviously, the 
clear realization of a problem to be solved is not usually the 
proper initial frame of mind for instruction along these lines. 

Motor skill and learning a foreign vocabulary. — In the 
cases of acquiring motor skill and learning a vocabulary the 
mental conditions which are favorable to securing the desired 
responses are primarily those of attention and interest in im- 
provement. If a person who is learning to play golf or use 
a typewriter, or who is learning to speak German, can be 
brought to attack the situation with interest and concentra- 
tion of attention, this is about all that can be done to put him 
into the right frame of mind. 



SELF-ACTIVITY AND APPERCEPTION 31 1 

Enjoyment. — In the case of forming habits of enjoyment, 
again it is primarily a matter of putting the learner in the 
right general mood. The general emotional atmosphere of 
the schoolroom should be that of pleasant entertainment. 
Certainly a generally sour, fault-finding, ill-tempered attitude 
on the part of the teacher would interfere seriously with the 
arousal of the responses of enjoyment which are contem- 
plated in the training. In the chapter on acquiring habits 
of enjoyment this influence of the teacher's attitude was 
discussed at length. Perhaps the best condition is that 
indicated by an English teacher who said to me in the 
hall after class, " We had a good time with one of Shelley's 
poems in that class to-day." As for securing the more deli- 
cate or refined emotional effects which are possible in con- 
nection with literature, the teacher has the same opportunities 
that a skilled dramatist or actor has in developing a general 
mental setting, or background, that will be favorable to bring- 
ing out the specific emotional responses desired from the 
pupils at various points in the reading. Very often the teach- 
ing can be made much more effective by making sure of such 
a mental setting at the beginning of the period, before actually 
undertaking the reading. An example of such a treatment of 
Gray's '' Elegy written in a Country Churchyard " is given 
in McMurry's " Method of the Recitation" (pp. 86-88). Con- 
cerning the nature of the mental setting, or background, to 
be arranged for any particular piece of literature there would 
probably be considerable disagreement among teachers, but 
this fact does not controvert the general desirability of en- 
deavoring to put students into the proper frame of mind to 
facilitate the emotional responses which are desired. Favor- 
able mental conditions for enjoying music, games, dancing, 
etc. might be considered by readers interested in these lines. 

Expression. — As stated in the preceding chapter, in 
training in expression the essential frame of mind in which 
to put the student is one in which he feels that he has 



312 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

information or interpretation which he is interested in com- 
municating effectively to an audience as being of interest to 
them and worthy of their attention. To secure this mental 
condition upon the part of each student requires special skill 
of teachers, and some possess a special technique of assigning 
themes so as to produce such a favorable mental attitude. To 
secure the desired attitude in the cases of students who have 
little talent for linguistic expression and little confidence in 
themselves is indeed a work of pedagogical art. 

Conclusion of discussion of self-activity and apperception. 
— This will conclude our discussion of the closely related 
principles of self-activity and apperception. The former 
designates the fact that it is the pupil's responses that edu- 
cate him ; hence the teacher must be skilled in assuring the 
specific mental responses desired for various educational pur- 
poses. The second principle, that of apperception, describes 
the general conditions determining the responses that pupils 
will make ; namely, the influences of (i) past experience and 
(2) the present frame of mind. In taking account of the first 
of these conditions the teacher must become well informed 
concerning the experiences and development of his pupils and 
see that the instruction is adapted to these. In taking account 
of the influence of the second factor, namely, the present 
frame of mind, the teacher will endeavor to bring about in 
the pupils an attitude favorable to the solving of a problem, 
the enjoyment of a poem, or whatever type of learning may 
be undertaken at the time. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES 

1. Adams, John. Exposition and Illustratioji in Teaching. (The 
Macmillan Company, 1910.) Pp. 91-144 and 167-186. The best single 
reference. Excellent discussion of the psychological and pedagogical as- 
pects of apperception, with many practical illustrations. Interesting style. 

2. Bagley, W. C. The Educative Process. (The Macmillan Com- 
pany, 1905.) Pp. 288-293. Brief discussion of putting pupils in right 
frame of mind and stating aim of lesson. 



SELF- ACTIVITY AND APPERCEPTION 313 

3. Charters, W. W. Methods of Teaching. (Row, Peterson & Co., 
revised edition, 191 2.) Critical discussion of Herbartian formal steps, 
especially preparation, pp. 322-329. Use of reviews to put pupil into 
proper frame of mind, pp. 355-364. 

4. Dewey, John. How We Think. (D. C. Heath & Co., 1910.) 
Danger of teaching words without meanings, pp. i 76-1 78 ; appercep- 
tion, p. 1 99 ; criticism of overemphasis on formal statement of aim, 
pp. 201-208. Important reference. 

5. McMuRRY, F. and C. The Method of the Recitation. (The Mac- 
millan Company, 1903.) Pp. 77-117, Elaborate discussion of putting 
students in proper frame of mind and of characteristics of a good aim. 

6. Parker, S. C. History of Modern Elenientaiy Edttcation. 
(Ginn and Company, 191 2.) Pp. 395-397. Brief historical statement 
concerning apperception. 

7. Strayer, G. D. The Teaching Process. (The Macmillan Com- 
pany, 1 911.) Pp. 51-56. Brief discussion of Herbartian step of 
preparation. 

8. Thorndike, E. L. P?'inciples of Teaching. (A. G. Seller, 1906.) 
Pp. 39-50. Illuminating study of self-activity and apperception by means 
of many practical problems to be solved by students. 



CHAPTER XIII 

INFLUENCE OF AGE ON LEARNING 

Main points of the chapter. — i. It is commonly maintained 
that the age from six to fourteen is the best age for learning a 
language and for acquiring motor skill, and that adolescence is 
the golden age for reasoning. 

2. In opposition to this general point of view this chapter 
maintains that all types of learning are important at all ages. 

3. On the basis of scientific investigations of facility in memo- 
rizing, it is maintained here that a foreign vocabulary can be ac- 
quired as economically and effectively during the later years of the 
period from six to eighteen as during any other years of this period. 

4. Upon grounds of social economy it is maintained here that 
the learning of a foreign language should be postponed in most 
cases until the probabilities become large that the students who 
begin it will eventually use it as a practical tool. 

5. Upon the basis of experimental investigations it is main- 
tained here that children in the elementary school carry on reflec- 
tive, analytical, abstract, generalized, reasoned thinking in the same 
general manner as high-school students do ; hence the general 
principles of training in reflective thinking apply in both cases. 

6. The same general point of view described above is main- 
tained here in the cases of training in enjoyment and training in 
expression. The development of the sex instinct, with its secondary 
characteristics in adolescence, presents an additional instinctive 
factor which must be considered in these two types of learning, 
but it does not modify the general principles of such learning. 

Do students at different ages vary in ability to learn ? — 

A phase of the learning process that needs brief consideration 
is the extent to which different types of learning prevail at 
different ages, and the extent to v^hich changes in the capacity 

314 



INFLUENCE OF AGE ON LEARNING 315 

for carrying on each type of learning occur with increasing 
age. In other words, is there any age, from the primary 
grades to high-school graduation, that is characterized by 
marked and peculiar superiority in the capacity to acquire 
motor skill ? to learn a foreign vocabulary ? to reason ? to 
acquire habits of enjoyment ? to acquire habits of expression ? 

Is age from six to tzvelve for acqidsition and adolescence 
for reasoning? — The practical importance of these questions 
is suggested by the contention of some educational theorists 
that younger students memorize more readily than older stu- 
dents, and that children do not reason until about twelve years 
of age. Upon this basis they argue that the age before twelve 
is the age for acquisition, and that instruction then should be 
characterized by "' arbitrary memorization, drill, and habitua- 
tion," but that adolescence is the golden age for methods 
of instruction which require students to reason. 

Consider each type of learning. — We shall take up each 
type of learning from the standpoint of the influence of age, 
before college graduation, upon facility of learning. In some 
cases we shall have evidence from experimental psychology 
to present ; in other cases the argument presented will be 
largely a matter of opinion. 

Acquiring motor skill. Ordinarily assumed that yonnger 
students learn nioi-e readily. — The first question which we 
shall consider is this : Are any of the years from six to 
eighteen especially favorable for learning to swim, to play 
tennis or basket ball, to manipulate a typewriter, to pronounce 
a foreign language t The ordinary dogmatic answer has been, 
in the cases of learning to swim and to pronounce a foreign 
language, that the learning should begin in childhood (pre- 
sumably from six to fourteen years of age) if skill is to be 
acquired economically and effectively. In the case of the 
other activities mentioned we have little published opinion. 

Maintained here that adolescence is as favorable for motor 
learning. — In opposition to the ordinary opinion stated above, 



3i6 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

we shall maintain that, of the years from six to eighteen, the 
later years are just as favorable for acquiring motor skill as the 
earlier ones. To be specific, the same individual, under ordi- 
nary circumstances, would learn to speak a foreign language 
as effectively and economically if he began it at the age of 
sixteen as if he began it at the age of nine, and possibly 
more so at the more advanced age. In order to determine 
whether this opinion or the opposite is true, we need exper- 
imental data (which, unfortunately, we do not have) from some 
such experiments as the following : Under thoroughly con- 
trolled, standardized laboratory conditions (to be arranged by 
competent experimental psychologists) representative groups 
of learners of various ages (say ten, twelve, fourteen, six- 
teen, and eighteen years) should practice, during a sufficiently 
long period of time, unfamiliar motor processes of the same 
general type as tennis playing, typewriting, etc. Exact 
objective measurements of the efficiency of all performances 
should be kept and tabulated, and the rates of learning 
for the groups of various ages compared. The comparative 
achievements and the comparative rates of learning would 
give us a valid answer to our problem. 

Arguments in favor of suggested hypothesis. — In view 
of the lack of such precise objective evidence I shall make 
the following points in favor of the hypothesis that the years 
from fourteen to eighteen are as favorable for acquiring motor 
skill as the years from six to fourteen. 

1. Brain processes favorable. — As far as we know, during 
the period from fourteen to eighteen neurone connections are 
being elaborated in the brain with just as much facility as 
during the period from six to fourteen. This is a technical 
point which it is not worth while to expand here, and the 
ordinary student need not pay any attention to it. 

2. Older students may have better m.ethods of learning. 
— As students grow older they not only continue to learn 
but they may learn to use better and more economical methods 



INFLUENCE OF AGE ON LEARNING 31; 

of learning. Hence we should expect a youth of eighteen 
years to have acquired better methods of learning than a 
child of seven. These better methods would enable him to 
acquire motor skill more readily. For example, a college stu- 
dent might consciously apply the rule, ''Be sure you're right ; 
then go ahead," but a child might disregard it. 

3. Skill acqidred in one line may help i7i closely related 
lines. — In some cases motor skill acquired in one process 
would be so similar to that required in another process taken 
up later that the former might help considerably in the latter. 
Thus, a boy who had developed skilled finger movements in 
piano playing from ten to eighteen years of age might profit 
from this in learning a touch system in typewriting at the age 
of eighteen. 

4. Coniplicati7ig factors disregarded in ordinary obser'va- 
tion. — The ordinary conclusion derived from comparing 
adolescent learners with younger children may fail to allow 
for various complicating factors. 

a. Judging by no7irep7'esentative , extrerne cases. — The 
first of these is the tendency to judge by nonrepresentative, 
extreme cases — for example, in the case of learning to swim, 
to compare the lad who naturally ''takes to water," and learns 
when young, with the studious chap who does n't care for 
swimming but takes it up in his college days as a means of 
self-preservation in case of accident. The chances are that 
those with natural zeal and aptitude for a sport like swim- 
ming would undertake it vigorously when young, leaving the 
less apt to begin later in life. The latter then appear to be 
slow learners, but they are really the less talented. 

b. Overlook large amotmt of practice in childhood. — The 
second complicating factor that is commonly overlooked is 
the large amount of practice received during years of child- 
hood when the line of motor activity is begun early. Thus, 
young swimmers will go in swimming twice a day during 
the summer, every day in the season, year after year, while 



3i8 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

the college student who undertakes to learn to swim in the 
gymnasium tank gets discouraged if he doesn't master the 
art after one lesson a week for ten weeks. The same may 
be said about practice in learning to pronounce a foreign 
language. The instructor who compares the German pro- 
nunciation of a college German class at the end of one 
semester unfavorably with the German pronunciation of chil- 
dren who have had German for five years in the elementary 
school usually fails to make allowance for the much longer 
practice that the children have had. 

Social needs and relations of subjects are determining 
factors, — These points would seem to justify accepting as 
a working hypothesis the theory that there is little or no 
difference in the natural facility with which motor skill is 
acquired at different ages from six to eighteen years. Pro- 
ceeding on this basis, we would contend that instruction in 
swimming, tennis playing, handwriting, the pronunciation of 
a foreign language, etc. should be organized with little regard 
to the differences in ability to learn that are supposed to be 
characteristic of different ages. The important factors deter- 
mining the arrangement for such instruction are (i) the social 
needs of students at different ages, (2) the relative importance 
of subjects, (3) their interrelations (that is, the way each sub- 
ject will contribute to the learning of other subjects), (4) the 
number of years of practice necessary to master a given form 
of motor skill, (5) the chances that students who need this 
form of skill will remain in school long enough to get it, etc. 

Learning a foreign vocabulary. Here maintained that 
later years are as favorable. — So far as high-school in- 
struction is concerned, the most important practical question 
raised in the present discussion is whether the ability to learn 
a foreign vocabulary varies with age. It is almost universally 
claimed that a student must begin a language when young in 
order to learn it effectively and economically. In opposition 
to this theory, we shall maintain, as in the case of motor 



INFLUENCE OF AGE ON LEARNING 319 

skill, that a foreign vocabulary can be learned just as eco- 
nomically at the later end of the period from six to eighteen 
years of age as at any other part of it. As the basis for this 
contention we have some very closely related evidence from 
experimental psychology, in the work done upon facility in 
memorizing at different ages. 

Experiments upon nie7norizing at different ages give evi- 
dence. — Learning a foreign vocabulary is largely a matter 
of memorizing. As pointed out on page 122, in learning a 
foreign vocabulary a person makes automatic many thousands 
of new associations between foreign words, or symbols, and 
their meanings. The new language presents a vast new series 
of associations that have to be built up. The automatizing of 
these is pedagogically a matter of economical and effective 
memorizing. Hence, to get light on the problem of the best 
age at which to provide instruction in learning a foreign 
vocabulary, we need evidence showing how well students 
memorize at different ages. 

Summaries of experimeiits up07t memorizing. — The ex- 
perimental investigations of changes with age in ability to 
memorize are summarized in accessible form in a number 
of places. One of these summaries is found in the books 
of G. Stanley Hall, namely, in his ''Youth" (pp. 268-273) 
and in his ''Adolescence" (Vol. II, pp. 488-492). Some- 
what more critical summaries are found in Thorndike's 
"Elements of Child Study" (pp. 81-85) and Kirkpatrick's 
"Fundamentals of Child Study" (pp. 254-255 and 268-271). 

Distinguish temporary learning from prolonged rete7itio7t. 
Me7ttal grasp. — Kirkpatrick, in his summary of the investi- 
gations in question, distinguishes between "increase in mental 
grasp," or temporary memory, and prolonged memory. Con- 
cerning increase in mental grasp he says : 

The experiments of Jacobs, Jastrow, Bolton, Smedley, and myself 
upon children of school age show that their ability to repeat or write 
a list of letters, figures, syllables, or familiar words immediately 



320 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

after they have been heard or' seen generally increases with age 
by about one third from the age of eight or nine to eighteen. As 
the reproduction is immediate, it is not so much a matter of mem- 
ory proper as of mental grasp. 

The cause of this increase in mental grasp with age is probably 
the same as that which makes it possible for us to hold in mind a 
long description of a route to be taken among familiar objects, 
while a short description of a route among unfamiliar objects can- 
not be kept in mind long enough, perhaps, to get started right. 
The same cause makes it easy for a skillful chess or checker player 
to see at once many more results of a move than he could when 
he began, or for an experienced musician to play with both hands, 
work the pedals, perceive the notes, and sing the words of a song 
all at the same time. In other words, ideas or a series of ideas, 
and even combinations of several series of ideas that have become 
definite and well established, are easily held in mind, while indefi- 
nite and newly formed ideas can be kept in consciousness only in 
limited numbers and with effort. 

The ideas of the child are largely new, while those of the adult 
are oftener old or connected with old ideas ; hence the adult's 
mental grasp is greater chiefly because of knowledge and experi- 
ence. The effect of knowledge on mental grasp is well shown by 
a series of experiments in which first-grade children and adults 
reproduce ordinary letters, Greek letters, and familiar sentences. 
The adults have little advantage in the case of Greek letters, a great 
deal in ordinary letters, and are almost infinitely better in reproduc- 
ing the letters making a sentence. Evidently the difference is due 
to greater familiarity and increased mental grasp. (6 : 254-255) 

Prolonged rete7ition. — Concerning the changes with age 
in prolonged memory, or the ability to retain mental content 
for some time, Kirkpatrick says : 

As already shown, mental grasp or memory span, in reproducing 
impressions just received, increases with age in a marked degree. 
The increase in power to recall after an interval of time, which is 
more properly called memory, is much less. Jastrow found that 
university students remembered only i or 2 per cent more words 
after an interval of three days than high-school students five years 



INFLUENCE OF AGE ON LEARNING 321 

younger. My tests showed little difference in the reproduction, after 
three days, of words seen or heard and objects shown, by children 
from the third grade up to college students, except that the memory 
of the older persons was more voluntary and less ready and spon- 
taneous. Shaw found that a story consisting of three hundred and 
twenty-four words, and nearly half as many distinct facts, was re- 
produced more than twice as fully by pupils of the ninth grade as 
in the lowest grade tested [namely, the third], and as well or better 
than by high-school or university students. He counted as correct 
facts expressed in other words than those given in the story. The 
greater difference with age in this test, compared with others, is 
probably because it involves associations of ideas instead of mere 
retention of impressions. If we take into account the slight mental 
grasp of the children and the length of time required for them to 
express what they remembered in writing, the difference in memory 
of impressions is almost nothing, and in memory involving associa- 
tions of ideas is not very great. 

The receptivity and retentiveness of the child's brain is probably 
as great as that of the adult. The difference in the memory of 
children and adults is therefore a difference in kind rather than 
in degree, and is caused largely by experience. Nothing that can 
be used as a memory test is as new for the adult as it is for the 
child. The adult already knows a part of what he is given to re- 
member, or, in other words, certain brain centers have already had 
practice in reproducing such impressions. In the adult brain also, 
where many centers are already well practiced, new impressions 
readily run into the old channels ; hence impressions are easily 
classified, and their centers readily awakened to activity again be- 
cause of their connection with centers frequently called into action. 
Finally, the adult mind has more power of voluntary attention, both 
in receiving impressions and in trying to reproduce them by hold- 
ing in mind some idea connected with them. As a consequence 
the spontaneous and unclassified memories of adults are not better 
than those of children, if they are as good, while their voluntary 
and systematic memories are better. (6 : 268-271) 

In learning a foreign vocabulary by either the direct or 
the translation method of instruction the type of memorizing 



322 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

involved is the voluntary and systematic kind referred to in ; 

the last sentence of the above quotation. i 

Evidence ttpon memorizing jnstifies postponing learning \ 
foreign vocabtdary. — If we apply to the pedagogical prob- 
lem concerning the best age at v^^hich to learn a foreign 
vocabulary the conclusions from the experimental investiga- 
tions of ability to memorize at different ages, it is clear that 
the later years of the period from six to eighteen are just as ^ 
favorable to such learning as any other years of the period. j 
This is not merely a statement of opinion, as was our con- 
tention in connection with acquiring motor skill, but it is a 5 
conclusion suggested by the results of objective, precisely ' 
measured, expert experimentation. j 

Some reasons for prevalence of co7ttrary opinion. Notice ; 

mature failures and overlook successful mature beginners. — -; 

With this fact in mind, let us consider briefly the reasons : 
why many teachers hold to the contrary opinion that the earlier 

years are more favorable for learning a foreign vocabulary. i 
In the first place, the relative difficulties that older students 

experience with a foreign language are commonly exaggerated, i 

owing to the following tendencies : to judge by a few extreme \ 

cases of poor mature students, to disregard extreme cases of \ 
good mature students, and to fail to get reliable averages for 

students of different ages who are beginning a foreign Ian- j 

guage. Thus, if a language teacher in college has a mature j 

student of twenty-five years of age who fails, the teacher com- : 

monly says it is because he began the language when too old. j 

At the same time, however, there will be young students fail- \ 

ing with the language but attracting no attention. More- ^ 

over, to balance failures of mature students who begin a ; 

foreign language, it is an easy matter to cite examples of \ 

mature beginners who have made brilliant successes with j 

foreign languages. Thus, the best teacher of German and - 

Spanish that I have ever known was an American who began ; 

the serious study of these languages after he was thirty years \ 



INFLUENCE OF AGE ON LEARNING 323 

old. Similarly, a graduate student in the university, aged 
thirty-eight, began the study of French and after twenty-four 
weeks with a class of beginners (during which time he carried 
on some extra outside French reading) easily passed the read- 
ing test in French required of candidates for the degree of 
Doctor of Philosophy. Finally, a man of forty-five began 
the study of German in the university and made grades of 
A and B in his classes. 

Matter e beginners succeed m proportio7i to native linguistic 
talent. — Shall we say that these men succeeded so well with 
the languages because they began them when so mature } Of 
course not. The fact is that all of them have a natural talent 
for language, as shown by the fact that they all express them- 
selves easily and fluently in English. On the other hand, many 
of the mature beginners who fail in studying a foreign lan- 
guage have little native linguistic ability, as is shown by the fact 
that they have little facility in expressing themselves in English. 

These examples, however, are beyond the age limits with 
which we are concerned in our discussion in this chapter, 
namely, from six to eighteen. They are cited here simply 
because they are of the same type as the examples ordinarily 
used to show that mature beginners of a language are at a 
distinct disadvantage. In order that they may not confuse 
the issue, we repeat that during the period from six to eighteen 
years of age the experimental investigations of memorizing 
indicate that the later years of the period are as favorable 
to the systematic learning of a foreign vocabulary as are the 
earlier years. 

Social economy also justifies postponing study of foreign 
language. — The above psychological discussion lends addi- 
tional force to the conclusion reached upon social grounds, 
that the beginning of the study of a foreign language in 
American schools, for children of American parents, should 
be delayed until there is large and reasonable assurance that 
the particular students who begin the study will have occasion 



324 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

to use it as a practical tool. If this were done, a very few stu- 
dents would begin the study in high school, but most students 
who began at all would do so in college. 

Delay beginning 7mtil some assurance that language will 
be used. — Ordinarily, nearly all high-school students are re- 
quired or advised to study a foreign language, in order, if the 
occasion sJioidd ever aiise, that they may be able to use it 
as a tool for study or research. In what per cent of the cases 
is the occasion to nse the language as a practical tool likely 
to arise ? If we ever really determined exactly what per cent 
of high-school students do actually use a foreign language 
as a tool in later life, the number would in all probability 
be so small that we should be justified in exactly reversing 
the argument stated in the first sentence of this paragraph ; 
that is, we should say that, inasmuch as over 90 per cent of 
high-school students will not have occasion to use a for- 
eign language as a practical tool in later life, we shall avoid 
an enormous social waste (of community money, teachers' 
time and energy, and students' time and energy) by making 
little or no provision for the study of a foreign language 
by most students in American high schools. Those who 
will use it as a practical tool in reading may begin to learn it 
when it becomes reasonably certain which students they are. 
If they are to be candidates for the degree of Doctor of 
Philosophy, as many of those are who use the language as 
a tool for studying, they can learn to read French in one 
year and German in two years during their college course. 
Moreover, learning the language at this period will obviate 
the waste of time ordinarily entailed in relearning the lan- 
guage when it has been studied early in life. That this 
necessity of relearning is a serious fact is shown by the 
large number of failures in efficiency and reading exami- 
nations in French or German by students in college who 
have studied the languages from two to ten years before 
taking the examination. 



INFLUENCE OF AGE ON LEARNING 325 

Use of foreign language as a tool for study is very infre- 
qitent. — To make the contentions of the preceding para- 
graph specific, let us consider 1000 students who enter 
high school. Of these probably 500 will not continue to 
graduation. Practically none of the nongraduates will have 
occasion to use French or German as a practical tool for 
further study. Of the 500 who graduate, 250 may go to 
college. Of these, 100 may graduate and be eligible to be- 
come candidates for the doctor's degree. But as a matter 
of fact, probably only 10 out of the original 1000 will ever 
do serious graduate study to the extent of receiving the 
master's degree (that is, one year after graduation from 
college). Probably not 5 out of the original 1000 who en- 
tered high school will become serious candidates for the 
doctor's degree. Of the 5, some will try to choose topics 
for dissertations in connection with which they will not have 
to use French or German. Of those who secure the degree 
very few will continue to do productive research work which 
will require a reading knowledge of a foreign language. 
Many of them will get positions as professors in small col- 
leges, normal schools, or high schools, and do routine teach- 
ing the rest of their lives. 

Combined psychological and social argtmtents justify post- 
poning st7cdy of foreign language. — Putting together the 
psychological evidence concerning the facility with which a 
reading knowledge or the vocabulary of a language is acquired 
at different ages, and the facts concerning the enormous 
social waste that is entailed by requiring or advising students 
to begin the study of foreign languages early, we feel justi- 
fied in maintaining that in most cases the study of a foreign 
language should be begun in later adolescence (from eighteen 
to twenty-two years of age), when the few students who will 
use the language begin to arrange their elections of studies 
with definite reference to a practical goal in connection with 
which they will use them. 



326 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

Changes with age in reasoning processes. Maintained here 
that elementary children nse same processes as adolescents. — 
When we take up a consideration of the reasoning processes 
of students at different ages, we again confront a condition 
in which the dogmas of ordinary observers are controverted 
by scientific evidence. The ordinary opinion, often found 
expressed in pedagogical books, is that young children do 
not reason as older persons do, and that some magic change 
takes place at the beginning of adolescence which results in 
the appearance or development of the reasoning powers. 
As opposed to this opinion, scientific psychology, which is 
based upon carefully conducted, precise, experimental inves- 
tigations, shows that children solve problems and acquire and 
use abstract and general ideas by the same general mental 
processes as adults use. In other words, children carry on 
reflective, analytical, abstract, generalized, reasoned thinking 
in the same way as adults, although not as extensively as 
adults who are engaged in certain specialized professional 
and scientific pursuits. 

Reaso7iing abilities of childreri demonstrated by Bonser. — 
The abilities of children in the intermediate grades to solve 
problems and do reflective thinking of various types were 
thoroughly investigated by F. G. Bonser and the results re- 
ported in his monograph entitled '' The Reasoning Abilities 
of Children in the Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth School Grades." 
His experiments included, among other tests, the working of 
mathematical problems of the following types : 

1. A. I. If I of a gallon of oil costs 9 cents, what will 7 gal- 
lons cost? 

2. John sold 4 sheep for $5 each. He kept \ of the money 
.and with the other \ he bought lambs at $2 each. How many 
did he buy ? 

3. A pint of water weighs a pound. What does a gallon weigh ? 

I. B. I. A man whose salary is $20 a week spends $14 a week. 
In how many weeks can he save ^300 ? 



INFLUENCE OF AGE ON LEARNING 327 

2. How many pencils can you buy for 50 cents at the rate of 
2 for 5 cents ? 

3. A man bought land for $100. He sold it for $120, gaining 
$5 an acre. How many acres were there ? 

11. A. I. 132 plus what number equals 36 ? 

2. If John had 15 cents more than he spent to-day, he would 
have 40 cents. How much did he spend to-day ? 

3. What number minus 7 equals 23 ? 

II. B. I. What number subtracted 12 times from 30 will leave 
a remainder of 6 ? 

2. If a train travels half a mile in a minute, what is its rate 
per hour? 

3. What number minus 16 equals 20 ? 

Concerning the kind of mental processes involved in these 
problems Bonser says : 

Tests I and II, the problems in arithmetic, test the mathe- 
matical judgment, in general that form of deductive reasoning 
most closely resembling the syllogistic movement of formal logic. 
The steps here involved are three : First, the analysis of the situ- 
ation, by which the essential features of the problem are conceived 
and abstracted ; second, the recall of an appropriate principle to be 
applied to the abstracted problem — a search among various prin- 
ciples which may suggest themselves for the right one ; and third 
(involved in the second), the inference, the recognition of identity 
between the known principle and the new situation. While this 
process goes on as implicit, explicitly there are made the concrete 
applications in the resolution of the problems. Clearly these are 
examples of deductive reasoning of the usual scientific type, in- 
volving data, principles, and inferences. The only element omitted 
is that of verification, which, by the nature of the tests, cannot here 
be brought out. (2 : 14) 

As v^ould be expected by anyone familiar with the chil- 
dren of the grades tested, the problems used in the tests 
were solved successfully by children in all of the grades, 
although there was improvement through the grades. Some 



328 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

of the best achievements were made, however, by some of the 
children in the fourth, or lowest, grade tested. Thus, 5 per 
cent of the boys in grade 4A reached or exceeded the ability 
reached by the highest 2 5 per cent of all the boys in the test. 

These data show by objective evidence that children do 
the same type of reflective thinking and problem-solving as 
adults do. For an extended defense of this point of view 
see the article by Professor John Dewey entitled '' Reason- 
ing in Early Childhood," in the Teachers College Recoi^d, 
January, 1914 (4: 9-15). 

Arguments for contrary opinion refuted. Mistakes in 
reasoning not evidence of lack of reasoning. — In order to 
make the whole situation concerning reasoning abilities at 
different ages somewhat clearer, we shall consider some of 
the points commonly made in connection with the ordinary 
opinion that young children do not reason. One reason why 
persons hold this opinion is because children make mistakes 
in their reasoning. These mistakes, however, are not evi- 
dence of lack of reasoning. Even the best reasoners make 
mistakes, and some of the errors made by large numbers of 
adults appear as ludicrous to those who are better informed 
as do the mistakes of children. Thus, in the seventeenth 
century there was common belief in the efficacy of a sym- 
pathetic powder or salve which was supposed to cure a 
wound through being rubbed on the weapon instead of on 
the wound. As a matter of fact, those who used the powder 
or salve often found that their wounds got well ; but that 
their reasoning in attributing the cure to the salve or powder 
was fallacious becomes evident on reading the directions 
accompanying it. These were, ''Rub the salve on the weapon 
and keep the wound clean and cool." The medical practices 
of the past were full of such errors, yet some of the physi- 
cians who believed in them were well-educated men and 
skilled reasoners. Hence, the fact that children make mis- 
takes in reasoning is not proof that they cannot reason. It 



INFLUENCE OF AGE ON LEARNING 329 

simply shows, as in the case of adults, that they have in- 
sufficient information or have failed to discover the essential 
element in the problem which they are considering. 

Reaso7iing of childreji confined to problems within their 
grasp. — Another reason for underestimating the reasoning 
activities of children is a survival from the educational prac- 
tices that prevailed during the period of religious dominance 
in elementary education, especially before the nineteenth 
century. During this period the material of instruction con- 
sisted largely of religious discussions, a long catechism being 
considered the most important. Since children could not 
understand or reason with the theological abstractions con- 
tained in the catechism, it was assumed that they could 
not reason at all. Rousseau (in 1762) made the proper 
psychological correction to this opinion when he asserted 
that, although children could not reason about the abstrac- 
tions of theology, they could reason effectively about matters 
within the range of their experience and understanding. 

Children nse symbolic images in reaso7iing. — Some au- 
thorities, instead of abiding by the objective evidence of the 
reasoning done by children (such as Bonser's study), endeavor 
to show that children's reasoning is of a different type from 
that of adults, by saying that children use concrete images 
as the mental stuff for their thinking, while adults in logical 
reasoning use symbols, words, etc. without attendant concrete 
images. For all practical purposes this is simply a quibble, 
since the problems solved and the objective results produced 
by children are of exactly the same types as those of adults, 
and statements concerning the nature of their mental proc- 
esses must be indirect inferences or guesses. Moreover, it 
is doubtful whether the asserted difference between the mental 
stuff used in the reasoning of children and that used by ordi- 
nary adults can be established in the way mentioned, that is, 
in terms of the presence and absence of concrete imagery. 
In the first place, children in school begin very early to use 



330 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

symbols in such a way that the concrete imagery is relatively 
unimportant. For example, consider problems II, ^5, i and 3 
in Bonser's test printed above on page 327. In solving these 
problems the essential thinking by the children may be and 
must be carried on, to a very large extent, in terms of mathe- 
matical symbols and abstract terms — in fact, to just as large 
an extent as would be the case with an ordinary adult who 
solved the same problems. 

Adults may have concrete imagery i7t logical reasoning. 
— Moreover, an adult may be working with a problem in con- 
nection with which abstract symbols and generalized ideas 
would seem to be the important thought-stuff, and yet have 
concrete images of particular situations constantly coming to 
mind. For example, I was recently asked by a normal-school 
president to examine and criticize his two-year course of 
study for high-school graduates. It happened that I had just 
made a study of normal-school catalogues and had tabulated 
and codified the requirements and practices in twenty-five 
representative institutions. On this basis I had drawn up a 
statement of what seemed to me to be the essential elements 
in a two-year normal-school course, and I had this clearly in 
mind as the logical basis for criticizing the course submitted 
to me for evaluation. On the other hand, I had spent five 
years as a teacher in a normal school in Ohio. In fulfilling 
the normal-school president's request I found that instead of 
thinking purely in terms of the generalized normal-school 
investigation that I had just made, I was continually having 
in mind concrete images of courses of study, faculty meet- 
ings, committee meetings, etc. at the Ohio normal school, 
where we had discussed the same general problems as applied 
to a specific situation. In other words, the essential ideas 
and meanings in my reasoning about normal-school adminis- 
tration were the abstract tabulations and generalized state- 
ments reached in my general survey, but running along with 
these in my thinking were the unnecessary and relatively 



INFLUENCE OF AGE ON LEARNING 331 

useless pictures of former colleagues sitting around tables 
and desks. Thus it would appear that even adults who are 
carrying on a highly generalized type of reflective thinking 
or reasoning may have more or less concrete imagery accom- 
panying it. Hence we do not find that the logical reasoning 
of ordinary adults necessarily differs from that of children by 
the absence of concrete imagery. 

Adolescence brings no new intellectual processes . — Finally, 
it is sometimes assumed that there is some great change at 
adolescence in the type of intellectual processes carried on. 
It is argued that, since there are such profound physical, in- 
stinctive, and emotional changes associated with the maturing 
of the sex functions, there must be similar innovations in 
the intellectual life. There is, however, no scientific evidence 
to indicate that any such change in the general character of 
the intellectual processes does take place. As students grow 
from the primary grades to high-school graduation no new 
types of intellectual processes appear and no sudden changes 
take place in the general character of any of the types that 
are present. Sensory discrimination, or sense perception, is 
present all the time and increases gradually in efficiency. 
Images are present at all ages from six to eighteen. In 
the prolonged thinking of any individual, at any age, con- 
cerning almost any new topic, the concrete images tend to 
become subordinated to symbolic images or imaged sym- 
bols (usually words) and feelings of meaning as the thinker 
becomes better informed about the topic and his ideas about 
it become more general and abstract. 

Adolescence does bring neiv social problems and economic 
responsibilities. — Similarly, reasoning is going on at all ages 
of school experience. Adolescence commonly brings with it 
larger social interests and larger economic responsibilities, 
which provide opportunities for thinking about many larger 
problems than those which presented themselves during the 
years from six to fourteen. But these larger problems at 



332 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

adolescence are thought out by the same • types of mental 
processes as children have been using in their studies and 
games and employments during the period from six to four- 
teen. Hence, as Dewey says, in reflective thinking 

the only way to achieve traits of carefulness, thoroughness, and 
continuity (traits that are, as we have seen, the elements of the 
" logical ") is by exercising these traits from the beginning and by 
seeing to it that conditions call for their exercise. (3 : 65) 

Same general principles of i^eflective thinking apply at all 
ages. — In view of these facts we may conclude that the 
general principles concerning training in reflective thinking 
which were discussed in Chapter IX apply at all stages of 
schooling, from the kindergarten to college graduation. Hence 
adolescent training calls for no pecidiar principles of instruc- 
tion in connection with reasoning, but simply requires an 
intelligent application of these general principles. 

Same point of view applied to training in enjoyment and 
expression. — In taking up the two remaining types of learn- 
ing (namely, acquiring habits of enjoyment, and skill in ex- 
pression) we shall maintain the same general position as we 
have in the cases of motor skill, association of symbols and 
meanings, and reflective thinking ; that is, the later years 
of the school period (from fourteen to eighteen) are charac- 
terized by the same general methods of developing habits of 
enjoyment and expression as are the earlier years (from six 
to fourteen), although the content of the experiences which 
play a part in the enjoyment or expression may be different 
and the directions which the interests of the students take 
may vary. 

Training in enjoyment based on persistent instincts and 
emotions. — At the basis of many of the forms of enjoyment 
are found certain fundamental instinctive and emotional ten- 
dencies that are present in all of the years of the school 
period. The instinctive enjoyment of rhythm is one of the 



INFLUENCE OF AGE ON LEARNING 333 

best examples. It plays a prominent part in the enjoyment 
of music, poetry, and dancing at all ages. Similarly, the in- 
terest in action, from which a large part of the contemplative 
enjoyment in watching games and dramatic performances is 
derived, is based on ingrained instinctive emotional tendencies 
which are probably as strong during the period from fourteen 
to eighteen as from six to fourteen. Certainly thousands of 
observers during the older period will be held spellbound by 
the action in athletic contests and in the theater in the same 
way as children are. It would be possible to go through the 
whole gamut of forms of enjoyment discussed in Chapter X 
and show in the same way that the fundamental basis in most 
young persons is the same at all ages, namely, certain deep- 
seated, persistent, instinctive emotional tendencies. It would 
be difficult to find a single instinct that is ever fundamental 
in the enjoyment of leisure and which is also transitory in 
character, that is, dies out in the later part of the school 
age although present in the earlier part. For an elaborate 
defense of this position see Thorndike's criticism of James's 
famous statement to the contrary (8 Vol. I : 260-269). 
On the other hand, we have appearing during the school 
period the finest example of a delayed instinct to be found, 
namely, the sex instinct. This instinct must be added during 
the adolescent period as a fundamental factor in the enjoy- 
ment of leisure time, and must be given serious consideration 
in connection with parties, dancing, reading, and possibly other 
lines of enjoyment. The same general principles of training 
for enjoyment, however, apply to the period which includes 
the sex instinct as apply in the earlier periods ; namely, those 
described in Chapter X. 

Expression. — Practically the same points as were made 
above in the discussion of training for enjoyment at different 
ages apply to training in expression. Hence they need not 
be repeated. In general, effective training in expression is 
secured at all stages in the school process under the same 



334 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

general conditions as were outlined in Chapter XI ; namely, 
(i) a real audience situation, (2) the student with interesting 
new content which he desires to communicate, (3) the care- 
ful organization of the same as a product of and aid to clear 
thinking, and (4) the endeavor to get the point of view of the 
audience, in order to make the presentation clear, interesting, 
and impressive. As in the case of training for enjoyment, 
the development of the sex instinct adds, during the adoles- 
cent period, to the list of instinctive tendencies of students 
which the teacher must consider. It brings with it certain sec- 
ondary characteristics, such as shyness or bashfulness and the 
opposing desire to show off, which are very important factors 
in the training in expression in mixed classes. 

Conclusion of discussion of influence of age on learning. — 
In general we can describe human beings from six to eighteen 
years of age as being very similar as far as their fundamental 
methods of learning are concerned. In the case of acquiring 
motor skill, the older students learn with approximately the 
same facility and by almost the same methods as the younger 
ones when attacking forms of skill that are equally novel to 
all groups. At all ages the principles concerning the part 
played by a correct start, imitation, verbal directions within 
the understanding of the learner, correct practice with zeal 
and concentration of attention, etc. apply as described in 
Chapter VI. In intellectual learning we find all the basic 
processes active at all ages (from six to eighteen); namely, 
the processes of sensory discrimination and sense percep- 
tion, concrete imagination, symbolic representative thinking 
in terms of words and other symbols, analysis, abstraction, 
the reflective solution of problems, reasoning. Hence, at 
all ages students should be given training in careful, pur- 
posive, controlled thinking as well as in the building up of 
systems of associations. Similarly, in acquiring habits of 
enjoyment and skill in expression the same general prin- 
ciples apply at all ages. During adolescence the sex instinct 



INFLUENCE OF AGE ON LEARNING 335 

enters as an additional conditioning factor to be taken into 
consideration in the application of the general principles. 

Throughout this chapter and the preceding ones, on expres- 
sion and on self-activity and apperception, we have had frequent 
occasion to emphasize the importance of adapting instruction 
to the interests of students, and have noted that, while these 
interests are based upon fundamental persistent instincts at 
all ages, their specific direction or content varies greatly with 
the experiences of the students. The importance of these 
instinctive interests as furnishing the chief basis for getting 
students to apply themselves so as to learn effectively and 
economically will be discussed in the next chapter. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES 

1. Bagley, W. C. The Educative Process. (The Macmillan Com- 
pany, 1905.) Chap. xii. Maintains the opposite view from that presented 
here concerning changes with age. 

2. Bonser, F. G. The Reasotiing Abilities of Children of the 
Fotirth^ Fifths and Sixth School Grades. (Teachers College, 1910.) 
A reliable experimental investigation. 

3. Dewey, John. How We Think. (D. C. Heath & Co., 1910.) 
Pp. 6s-^6. 

4. Dewey, John. Reasoning in Early Childhood. Teachers College 
Record., January, 191 4, Vol. XI, pp. 9-1 5. Defends the thesis that ^' the 
power of reasoning in children does not differ fundamentally from that 
of adults." 

5. Hall, G. Stanley. Adolescence. (D. Appleton and Company, 
1904.) Vol. II, pp. 488-492. Summary of experiments on memorizing. 
See also his Youth., pp. 268-273. 

6. KiRKPATRiCK, E. A. Fundamentals of Child Study. (The 
Macmillan Company, 1903.) Chap, xiv, entitled Development of Intel- 
lect, especially pp. 254-255, 268-271, 274-282. 

7. Thorndike, E. L. Notes on Child Stzidy. (The Macmillan Com- 
pany, 1903.) Chaps, xi and xiii. Most critical discussion of abilities of 
children in memorizing and reasoning. 

8. Thorndike, E. L. The Original Nature of Man., being Volume I 
Qi\{\s Educational Psychology. (Teachers College, 191 3.) Pp. 260-269. 



CHAPTER XIV 

INTERESTS, THE BASIS OF ECONOMY IN LEARNING 

Main points of the chapter. — i . DifBcult and worthy achieve- 
ments in life are based on intense interests. 

. 2. Similarly, effective endeavor and economy in learning is best 
secured in school by utilizing students' active interests. 

3. Closely related to interest is attention, which may be sub- 
divided as follows : 

a. Spontaneous attention, which is either 

(i) Instinctive or 
(2) Habitual. 

b. Forced attention. 

4. Spontaneous attention is much more effective than forced 
attention as the basis of economical learning. 

5. The following instincts are discussed as the basis of spon- 
taneous instinctive attention in school : 

a. Fear of physical pain, fear of sarcasm and ridicule, 
and individual emulation, which have been or are being 
discarded. 

b. Mental activity, curiosity, physical activity, manipula- 
tion, communication, and cooperation, which are coming to 
be used more extensively. 

6. Habitual interests or habitual tendencies to give attention are 
formed by students as they progress through school, and teachers 
should build upon these. ^^ 

7. To utilize the natural and acquired interests of students 
effectively, teachers in high schools should familiarize themselves 
with the interests of adolescent boys and girls. 

Intensive application necessary for economical learning. — 

The problem of this chapter is the one of getting pupils to 
apply themselves so that they will carry on effectively and eco- 
nomically the processes of learning described in the preceding 

336 



INTERESTS AND ECONOMY IN LEARNING 33/ 

chapters. The relation of this problem to the previous dis- 
cussions may be outlined briefly as follows : As the first point 
to be considered we took up (in Chapter II) a discussion of 
the broadening tendencies found in high-school instruction 
at the present time, and defined the ultimate purposes of 
such instruction as social efficiency (economic, domestic, and 
civic), good will, and harmless enjoyment. We then showed 
(in Chapter III) that the modern school which is organized 
to attain these aims must apply principles of business man- 
agement in order to avoid the enormous waste that would 
otherwise occur in such a complicated social institution. 
The subject matter to be used was next considered, as its 
selection and arrangement affects the individual teacher, and 
emphasis was placed upon the adaptation to varying social 
needs and to the interests and capacities of the students. 
In the next nine chapters (V to XIII) we considered at 
length the processes by which students learn, since the 
direction of the learning process is one of the teacher's chief 
duties. We discussed the methods by which each type of 
learning is carried on most effectively and economically, as 
well as the influence of certain general factors, including the 
increase in age of the students. Now, having gained an idea 
of what the school should aim to accomplish, its general prin- 
ciples of economical management, the subject matter it should 
use, and the types of learning it must direct, we confront the 
problem of securing intensive application by the students in 
order that the learning processes may be carried on effectively 
and economically. * 

Intense effort best secured by utilizing student's active 
interests. — The best basis for economy and effectiveness 
in learning is concentration of attention by the learner upon 
the process or material to be mastered. Such concentration 
of attention is best secured through the learner's active inter- 
ests. Hence the teacher should be skilled in so arranging 
educative situations that the students will lay hold vigorously 



338 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

upon the experiences provided and will reach out after more. 
This is what is meant by having instruction appeal to the 
student's interests. It conceives of interests as dynamic 
active tendencies in human beings, which the school can 
take advantage of and so direct that the energies of the 
students will be spent in mastering materials and processes 
that are educative. 

A btisiness proposition, not a matter of sentiment. — This 
way of regarding the utilization of student's present interests 
as an aid in instruction is purely utilitarian and cold-blooded 
in character. There is nothing sentimental about it, any more 
than it would be considered a matter of sentiment for a trav- 
eling salesman to try to sell an improved adding machine to 
a business man by appealing to the man's interest in securing 
speed, economy, and accuracy in his bookkeeping. In the 
selling of most kinds of goods the salesman can assume, on 
the part of the prospective buyer, the existence of certain 
active interests which are an essential part of the latter' s busi- 
ness activity. The salesman builds upon these in the same 
way that the teacher ought to build upon the active interests 
of students which are the essential elements in their lives. 
When the school is adapted to social needs, it is endeavoring 
to accomplish certain fundamental human purposes which are 
paralleled by the students' interests. This is especially true 
during the adolescent period. It is simply a matter of com- 
mon business sense to approach the purposes to be attained 
through their corresponding interests, in the same way that 
the skilled salesman approaches his prospective customer 
through the latter 's interests. 

Opposed by advocates of drudgery in school. — The view 
of instruction which has just been presented regards the school 
as preparing in very definite ways for the manifold activities 
of life in which most normal human beings are vitally inter- 
ested. With such a general point of view it is a simple matter 
to so organize instruction as to utilize the natural energies of 



INTERESTS AND ECONOMY IN LEARNING 339 

students in getting the activities of the school carried on. 
The opposite view of .instruction, which considers its mate- 
rials and processes to be essentially and necessarily distasteful 
to students, prevailed in secondary instruction for a long time 
and still has some ardent advocates, especially in schools which 
maintain the old classical curriculum with little modification. 
This view may be designated as the drudgery view of in- 
struction. According to this view Latin is a splendid instru- 
ment of instruction, because in teaching it we can so easily 
assign to students definite distasteful tasks which will develop 
their will power and thus prepare them to attack the dis- 
tasteful duties of life. 

Achievements in life based on intense interests, not on 
drudgery. — The drudgery view of learning is certainly falla- 
cious if we regard the school (as we have been doing in this 
book) as a place that prepares in quite specific ways for the 
activities of life, because, to do this economically, it is nec- 
essary to work with and not against the active interests of stu- 
dents. ^Moreover, it is probably a more valid view of life and 
achievement in general to say that persons who accomplish 
great things in life are those who are actuated or driven by 
intense, abiding interests. This is true of most of the great 
leaders in science, literature, politics, morals, and religion. 
As compared with these, the number of persons is relatively 
small who have accomplished things by saying, '' Here are 
great unpleasant duties. I must perform them in spite of 
the fact that I hate to do it. The fundamental activities 
of my life are certainly uninteresting ; they make no appeal 
to me ; but I must find some way to drive myself to my 
work." Moreover, the same contrast would probably be 
true of ordinary people who try to lead worthy lives ; most 
of them do worthy deeds because they have strong, abiding, 
specific interests in the activities represented, not because 
they are driven by the sense of duty to do distasteful tasks. 
Hence the preparation for a life of useful service should be 



340 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

made by directing the active present interests of students in 
such a way that the worthy interests of Ufe grow out of them. 

Diffictdt undertakings often the most interesting. — A 
corollary of the theory which regards intense interests as the 
basis of achievement is the statement that intense interest 
may be manifested in accomplishing very difficult things. 
The most extreme examples of this fact are those in which 
the difficult activity is interesting largely because of its diffi- 
culty. The best illustrations from school life are found in the 
interest with which some students attack difficult exercises 
in geometry. An example from ordinary life is mountain 
climbing. This is illustrated not only by the activities of pro- 
fessional climbers, who go to the ends of the earth to scale 
the highest peaks, but also by some of the climbing under- 
taken in the Alps by amateurs simply in order to climb 
difficult mountains. 

Interest iji the filial end lends interest to intermediate steps. 
— Very commonly an intense interest is maintained in achiev- 
ing some end regardless of the difficulties which beset the 
path, and the interest in the final end develops an interest in 
mastering the intermediate difficulties. Among the best ex- 
amples are the careers of great singers and actors and actresses. 
These have been well illustrated in the many recent accounts 
of the long and varied training which great singers must go 
through, including not only vocal training proper but also 
linguistic training and severe physical regimen, to develop a 
powerful physique. In such cases the intense interest in the 
final achievement impels the singer to practice the interme- 
diate processes, which sometimes, as a result, become very 
interesting in themselves. To be sure, specific efforts of the 
will are often necessary in starting the learner upon a period 
of practice, but such efforts are commonly not actuated by 
an abstract sense of duty, but by the interest in the final goal, 
to which the relation of the intermediate steps is clearly per- 
ceived. In view of this discussion we may assume that an 



INTERESTS AND ECONOMY IN LEARNING 341 

emphasis upon interests as the basis of effective and econom- 
ical learning in the school is perfectly consistent with pro- 
longed, intense application by the students in mastering 
difficult assignments. 

Part played by interest in learning shown in preceding 
chapters. — The point of view which regards present interests 
as the basis for effort and achievement in instruction has been 
assumed throughout the preceding chapters. Thus, in Chapter 
II (p. 22) the development of abiding, many-sided interests 
was named as one of the important proximate aims of instruc- 
tion. In Chapter IV (p. 80) the adaptation of subject matter 
to the present interests of students was set forth as one of the 
chief factors in carrying out the psychological instead of the 
logical point of view in organizing subject matter. In Chap- 
ter X (p. 259) and Chapter XI (p. 278) this same point was 
given detailed application to training in habits of enjoyment 
and expression. In the chapter on practice and drill (p. 149) 
the most convincing fact which we possess concerning the 
value of concentration of attention based on interest was 
stated in connection with Book's experiments on acquiring 
skill in typewriting. This fact was that improvement in 
speed, as shown by actual measurements, was greatest when 
interest and concentration of attention were greatest. Periods 
of dead mechanical practice were characterized by little im- 
provement in speed. Moreover, it was clear in Book's study 
that the concentration of attention which was effective was 
not secured by a dead heave of the will, but was based upon 
spontaneous interest. 

Interest and attention ; spontaneous and forced attention ; 
a working classification. — The last statement in the pre- 
ceding paragraph furnishes the point of departure for an 
analysis of the methods of securing interest and concen- 
trated attention, for attention may be characterized as either 
(i) spontaneous or (2) forced. Spontaneous attention seems 
to come of itself, either because the individual is impelled 



342 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

from within by active interests or because of the attractive- 
ness of some object which appeals to some tendency in the 
individual. Forced attention, on the other hand, seems to be 
especially constructed or manufactured by the individual, either 
in response to his own idea that he must attend or in response 
to a demand from some other person. It is always difficult 
to get satisfactory descriptive terms to designate kinds of at- 
tention, but . for the purposes of our pedagogical discussions 
the use of the terms spontaneous smd forced sls defined above 
will be sufficiently clear. 

Spontaneous attention more effective than forced atten- 
tion. — As pointed out in our discussion of Book's experi- 
ments on learning to use the typewriter (see p. 152), sponta- 
neous attention is more effective than forced attention, because 
the former is usually undivided and hence is more constant 
and concentrated. On the other hand, forced attention (at 
least in the beginning of the attentive act) is usually divided, 
for not only is the learner endeavoring to give attention to 
the matter in hand, but he also has in mind the fact that 
he must give attention, and he has to keep thinking that he 
must check himself from failing to attend to the matter in 
hand. Moreover, he is at the same time often impelled or 
attracted by some other object of attention which appeals 
to his interests. In such a situation, attention to the matter to 
which he is endeavoring to give forced attention is likely to 
be quite fluctuating ; hence, not concentrated ; hence, not 
very effective. As an example of such a situation let the stu- 
dent call to mind his own efforts to study for an examina- 
tion when a conversation in which he is interested is being 
carried on across the table from him and he realizes that he 
has only twenty minutes left in which to get ready for the 
examination. Or call to mind efforts to study after returning 
from a dance, with the mind full of alluring melodies and 
memories, or after laying down an unfinished and exciting 
book. It takes no fine psychological measurements to show 



INTERESTS AND ECONOMY IN LEARNING 343 

that the progress made during an hour of such divided and 
forced attention is often not as great as that made during fif- 
teen minutes of concentrated, undivided, spontaneous atten- 
tion to the lesson in question. In school work it is obvious 
that the substitution of such spontaneous, undivided attention 
for the forced and divided attention which is often found there 
would mean much more effective and economical learning. 

Two kinds of spontaneous attention, the instinctive and 
the habitual. — Spontaneous attention, which it is so desirable 
to secure, may be based upon interests or active tendencies 
which are either instinctive or habitual (that is, acquired) ; 
hence we may speak of instinctive spontaneous attention and 
habitual spontaneous attention. If now we tabulate our de- 
scriptive terms for the various kinds of attention, they appear 
as follows : 

1. Spontaneous attention 

a. Instinctive 

b. Habitual 

2. Forced attention 

Examples of instinctive spontaneous attention are the fol- 
lowing : attention to moving objects, to loud noises, to rhythmic 
noises, to living animals by children, to members of the oppo- 
site sex during adolescence, to contests of various sorts, to 
stories of adventure, romance, etc. In general, there would 
be examples of instinctive spontaneous attention correspond- 
ing to every one of the long list of human instincts to which 
reference will be made later on. Examples of habitual spon- 
taneous attention are the following : attention to the block 
signals by the locomotive engineer, to the barometer by the 
navigator, to the stock reports by the broker, to the rocks of 
a region by the geologist, etc. Many cases of spontaneous 
attention have a definite, instinctive basis, which has become 
specialized by habit in certain directions. Thus, the instinctive 
spontaneous attention which the lover of sports gives to con- 
tests becomes specialized by habit in the tendency to give 



344 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

rapt attention to the sporting page of the newspaper. The 
instinctive spontaneous attention which some speculators and 
financiers give to business gambhng for gain becomes special- 
ized by habit in the form of attention to the tape of the ticker 
upon which appear the stock reports. We shall take up each 
type of spontaneous attention for detailed consideration in 
relation to instruction, considering instinctive spontaneous 
attention first. 

Instinctive spontaneous attention. Instincts the basis of 
human behavior. — The first point to consider in connec- 
tion with instinctive spontaneous attention is the large part 
played by instincts in determining human tendencies and 
conduct. It is sometimes assumed that animals are guided 
by instincts and man is guided entirely by reason. As a 
matter of fact, man has more instincts than most animals, and 
the instincts of any particular individual are largely the basis 
of his character and his active interests. To secure an appre- 
ciation of this fact the student should read the chapter on 
instincts in William James's " Principles of Psychology " 
(Vol. II, pp. 383-441) and the first part of MacCunn's 
''Making of Character" (191 3) (pp. 1-68). Both of these 
books have a very attractive style, and the discussions referred 
to throw an interesting light on human nature generally, apart 
from all pedagogical considerations. For a more accessible 
and equally interesting account of instincts, read J. R. Angell's 
"Psychology" (1908) (pp. 339-362). 

Three questions in evaluating each instinct. — In taking 
up the pedagogical consideration of instincts as the basis of 
instinctive spontaneous attention, we may note three ques- 
tions that should be kept in mind in determining the desir- 
ability of utilizing any given instinct in school as a means of 
securing interest ; namely, 

1 . What part does the instinct play in social life .? 

2. Is it effective when utilized as a basis of attention and 
interest in instruction ? 



INTERESTS AND ECONOMY IN LEARNING 345 

3. Are the present and ultimate educational results of 
utilizing it satisfactory ? 

Ilhcstrated by application to instinct of emulation. — To 
illustrate the application of these questions, let us consider the 
use of the instinct of emulation in instruction from the stand- 
point of each question. 

1 . Emulation an important cause of social striving. — 
Emulation, or rivalry, is one of the most impelling motives in 
social life. In fact, Veblen, in his '' Theory of the Leisure 
Class," maintains that ''pecuniary emulation" (that is, the 
desire to possess more wealth or position or power than some- 
one else) is at the basis of most social striving and many 
phases of social organization. He gives examples which vary 
from the savage who can show the ob.vious trophies of the 
chase as evidence of his power and wealth to the American 
millionaire whose unused mansion on Fifth Avenue or River- 
side Drive in New York, and whose jewel-bedecked wife in 
the golden horseshoe at the opera, serve the same purpose by 
being tangible evidence that he has so much money that he 
can afford to spend it in perfectly useless or unnecessary ways. 
Such persons, and in a small way many others, are not 
striving for necessities or even for luxuries ; they are simply 
striving to get more. At first they strive to get more than 
some persons and as much as certain others in order to be 
considered in the class with the latter. Having attained this 
point they are not satisfied, but continue to strive to secure 
more than their present equals in wealth or power or posi- 
tion, in order to have as much as some other individual or 
group higher up in the scale of quantity. Thus the striving 
is always going on, bringing with it many material improve- 
ments in life and at the same time producing much unhappi- 
ness, but leaving no doubt that emulation is one of the most 
influential causes in social endeavor. 

2. Emulation has beert ejfectively used in schools. — 
When we regard emulation from the standpoint of our second 



346 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

question, namely, its effectiveness when used in instruction, 
it becomes evident that it can be made just as influential 
in school as it is in social life at large. If prizes, rewards, 
honors, and position are held up for competition, the striving 
of students to attain them commonly becomes intense and 
vigorous. If the conditions of the competition are so arranged 
as to give a chance to students of all degrees of ability, the 
stimulus affects large numbers of the students. The large 
possibilities of using emulation as a motive were most thor- 
oughly worked out by the Jesuits, whose secondary Latin 
schools were the most efficient in Europe for over two hun- 
dred years before 1773. There were many factors contribut- 
ing to cause this efficiency, one of them being the organized 
appeal to emulation. - Their scheme is described in the fol- 
lowing quotation from Quick's ''Educational Reformers." 

One of the leading peculiarities of the Jesuits' system was the 
pains they took to foster emulation, '' the whetstone of talent, the 
spur of industry." For this purpose all the boys in the lower part 
of the school were arranged in pairs, each pair being rivals {aeniuli) 
to one another. Every boy was to be constantly on the watch to 
catch his rival tripping, and was immediately to correct him. Be- 
sides this individual rivalry, every class was divided into two hostile 
camps, called Rome and Carthage, which had frequent pitched 
battles of questions on set subjects. These were the " concerta- 
tions," in which the boys sometimes had to put questions to the 
opposite camp, sometimes to expose erroneous answers when the 
questions were asked by the master. (8 : 42) 

Further evidence concerning the effectiveness of an appeal 
to emulation can be cited by anyone who is familiar with the 
results in high schools where students are stimulated to study 
for gold and silver medals, for first place in the class, etc. 
To be sure, the possibility of securing these honors stimulates 
only a few, but the effect upon these is evidence that a com- 
petitive system that would stimulate all would be effective in 
increasing the general interest in and attention to studies. 



INTERESTS AND ECONOMY IN LEARNING 347 

3. The total effects of tLsing emtdation are unsatisfactory, 
— Having determined that emulation is a most important 
stimulus in social life at large, and that it can be used with 
equal effectiveness in school, the third point to determine is 
whether the present and ultimate educational effects of using 
it are satisfactory. When we set out to do this, we immedi- 
ately realize the inadequacy of the standard for the selection 
and organization of the activities of the school which has 
been popularized recently in the statement that '' the school 
cannot be a preparation for social life except as it reproduces 
the typical conditions of social life " ; for if we applied this 
standard, we should certainly feel justified in making individual 
emulation just as large a factor in the school as it was shown 
to be in social life. But those who maintain that the school 
should reproduce typical social conditions would be the first 
to object to the emphasis on individual emulation in school. 
What they really want is not a reproduction of the typical 
conditions of existing social life, but of some ideal social life 
which they have in mind. 

It is upon some such ideal basis that we must determine 
whether the educational results of appealing to individual 
emulation in the school are satisfactory. As noted above, in 
social life, emulation stimulates striving which results in mate- 
rial improvement accompanied by much unhappiness. Simi- 
larly, in the school emulation stimulates striving which results 
in improved lessons accompanied by much unhappiness and 
by increased tendencies to selfish emulation, which are unde- 
sirable from the ideal social standpoint held by most reliable 
moralists. The unhappiness, hard feeling, deceit, etc. which 
accompany schemes for appealing to individual emulation in 
school are apparent to everyone. If other instincts can be 
appealed to effectively in order to secure interest and attention, 
without such unsatisfactory consequences as result from ap- 
peals to individual emulation, it would be better to utilize these 
other instincts instead of the instinct of individual emulation. 



348 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

Thus we have considered the instinct of emulation from 
the three points of view outUned above ; namely, 

1. The part which it plays in social life. 

2. Its effectiveness as used in school. 

3. The value of the educational results of using it. Stu- 
dents should keep these three points in mind and apply them 
in evaluating all human instincts that may be used as the 
basis of attention and interest in instruction. 

Important instincts used as basis of attention and interest. 
— We shall now take up a few of the instincts which have 
been used in practical ways in school to secure attention, in 
the order of their emphasis historically. 

Fear of physical pain generally used until 1800. — It is hard 
to realize that in Western Europe for hundreds of years the 
principal means of getting students to study their lessons was 
fear of physical punishment ; but this was the case. There 
is plenty of evidence in the pictures of old-time schools, in 
the appeals to abolish the practice which were made by such 
famous writers as Erasmus (1466-1536), Comenius (1592- 
1670), Ascham (15 15-1568), and Mulcaster (i 5 30-161 1), 
and in the records of the number of whippings given by 
schoolmasters. The picture on page 349, in which a large 
bunch of switches is held ready in the master's hand, is 
typical. The switches were held in such a convenient posi- 
tion, not because the boys were likely to be unruly or insub- 
ordinate, but in order that the teacher might give a blow for 
each mistake as soon as the pupil made it while reciting. 

Apart from the fact that for humanitarian reasons such 
punishment would not be tolerated at the present time, it 
would not be used because it is obviously ineffective. Instead 
of securing spontaneous attention, at the best it secures forced, 
divided attention under conditions that are very unfavorable 
to mental progress. For these reasons the use of the instinc- 
tive fear of physical pain as a stimulus to attention was gen- 
erally discarded after the beginning of the nineteenth century. 



INTERESTS AND ECONOMY IN LEARNING 349 



Fear of sarcasm and ridicule. — Somewhat akin to the 
appeal based on the fear of physical pain is that based on 
the instinctive fear of sarcasm and ridicule. This form of 
stimulus is still used by many teachers, who regard it as an 
effective instrument. Such teachers practice the use of sar- 
casm and ridicule as an art, and develop a vocabulary of 
stinging terms and expressions calculated to make the laziest 
student apply himself in 
order to avoid a repetition 
of the ridicule. It is true 
that such methods are often 
effective in securing atten- 
tion and effort on the part 
of the student, but attention 
secured in this way is likely 
to be forced and divided, and 
hence relatively ineffective 
as compared with sponta- 
neous attention. If some 
means of arousing the latter 
can be devised, it would be 
better to omit sarcasm and 
ridicule. Moreover, the un- 
happiness which these cause 
most students to suffer and 
the unfriendly relations which 
they tend to establish between 
teacher and students furnish additional reasons for avoiding 
their use under ordinary circumstances. Certain mild forms 
of good-humored ridicule, in which the lazy or careless stu- 
dent becomes the object, for the moment, of mild, friendly 
bantering by the teacher, would be the exceptions to the 
general rule of eliminating ridicule as a stimulus to attention. 

Emulation used by the Jesuits as described above. — The 
transition from the use of the fear of physical pain to the 




A FRENCH SCHOOL ABOUT 1628 

Note the convenient bunch of switches, 

ready to give a blow for each mistake. 

After Cubberly 



350 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

use of emulation represents a definite historical advance 
and was so regarded by the two large systems that used 
emulation extensively ; namely, that of the Jesuits (i 540), dis- 
cussed above, and the Lancasterian monitorial system, which 
was adopted extensively in the large cities in the United 
States from 1805 to 1830. This system used an elaborate 
scheme of medals, tickets, and prizes, of which there are still 
some survivals in our schools. In view of the long evaluation 
of the use of emulation given above (pp. 345-348), nothing 
further need be said here concerning it. 

Higher instinctive appeals utilized recently. — We now 
come to a long list of instincts which began to be considered 
as the basis of attention during the educational reforms that 
developed in the later eighteenth and in the nineteenth century 
under the stimulus of Rousseau's Entile^ which was published 
in 1762. The list includes mental activity, curiosity, the col- 
lecting instinct, the instinct of physical activity, manipulation, 
communication, and cooperation. Some of these are more 
easily and profitably used in the elementary school than in 
high school. 

Mental activity. Normal human beings cannot keep from, 
thinking. — By the instinct of mental activity is meant the 
natural tendency of human beings to be actively and spontane- 
ously thinking whenever they are awake. Such spontaneous 
thinking varies from the revery of the daydreamer to the 
scintillating ideas of the wit or the intense, suggestive, and 
critical reasoning of the scholar. In all of these cases the 
thinking may go on with no special practical purpose in 
view. The thinkers think because they can't help it ; they 
are driven by instinct. You may imagine the daydreamer 
and the wit and the scholar all reclining lazily on the ocean 
beach or in the comfortable chairs of a vacation resort in 
summer, with nothing to do except loaf — and the dreamer 
dreams, the wit scintillates, and the scholar goes on reflect- 
ing just the same. 



INTERESTS AND ECONOMY IN LEARNING 35 1 

Opporttmity for active thinking should be provided. — This 
fact, that much intense active thinking is done as the result 
of the strong instinctive tendency which many persons pos- 
sess, is sometimes overlooked by writers who insist that stu- 
dents -must always feel some practical need or motive for 
their studies. Studies should appeal to practical interests in 
general, but the instinct of mental activity, as well as many 
of the other instincts, will often keep many students actively 
at work physically and mentally if the school will simply 
open up outlets for this instinctive activity. 

My own experience as a youth is typical. In the grammar 
grades of the ordinary elementary school which I attended, 
no special outlets for instinctive mental activity were opened 
up. Hence, like many boys, I read many books of adventure. 
Our family had three public-library cards. Making a trip down 
town on Saturday, I could get three books of fiction, such as 
" Ragged Dick," '' Frank on the Gunboat," etc. These were 
read through by Sunday evening. Then recourse was had to 
five-cent novels. These could be bought second-hand, two 
for a nickel. By trading with other boys, I could piece out 
the week with reading matter until the next trip to the library. 
Instead of completing the eighth grade in the public elemen- 
tary school, I transferred to a private manual-training high 
school which maintained an eighth grade. Here the methods 
of instruction were entirely different. Every lesson opened 
up some outlet for further thought or reading or collecting. 
Instead of securing books of fiction from the library, books 
on history, physiography, botany, etc. were taken out. These 
were read and studied after school and in the evening, not as 
required work but simply as outlets for mental activity. More- 
over, the change was not due to a disappearance of the inter- 
est in stories of adventure, for I have always continued to read 
'' Sherlock Holmes " and similar stories with intense interest ; 
but the mental energy which went into this line of activity 
was easily diverted to another when opportunity was offered. 



352 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

Most students have favorite lines of mental activity. — 
Some students exhibit little preference in the choice of the 
direction which their thinking will take ; they think just as 
spontaneously along historical lines as along mathematical 
or mechanical lines. Most students, however, exhibit definite 
preferences, and these must be considered by the instructor. 
In probably half of the students to be found in high school 
the instinct of mental activity is sufficiently strong to result 
spontaneously in serious study along one or two lines, pro- 
vided the way to these lines is opened up. The preferred 
lines might be historical and literary, or mathematical and 
scientific, or scientific and mechanical, etc. 

Curiosity ; either alert contemplation or mental striving. — 
The instinct of curiosity is a special phase of the instinct of 
mental activity. It is the phase represented by the tendency 
to be interested in the novel aspects or the unmastered as- 
pects of the situation. Sometimes it involves merely alert 
contemplation, but often it is characterized by intense mental 
striving. In either case it is a most useful instinct for securing 
instinctive spontaneous attention. 

Easily aroused. — Examples of the use in high school of 
curiosity in the form of alert contemplation are found in all 
subjects in the use of novel examples within the general range 
of the students' experience. Any new concrete or specific 
instance or incident, if presented with skill, is almost certain 
to challenge curiosity in the form of alert contemplation. 
Any number of examples can easily be given by students, 
especially from the subject matter of science. Curiosity is, 
seldom aroused in high-school students, however, by general 
and abstract statements unless these evidently present a new 
aspect of familiar experiences or familiar general ideas. An 
example of such a statement would be that water often runs 
uphill. Another would be that all men are not created equal 
even though it is so stated in the Declaration of Independ- 
ence. Another would be that, although it is a monarchy, the 



INTERESTS AND ECONOMY IN LEARNING 353 

English government is probably more democratic than that 
of the United States. Another example, for northern readers, 
would be that the South would probably have won the Civil 
War if it had possessed anything like the material resources 
of the North. 

Contemplative curiosity may be developed into active. — 
Alert contemplative curiosity aroused by some of these state- 
ments may be changed into the form of mental striving for 
further knowledge of the situation. For example, I do not 
know whether the last example given in the preceding para- 
graph (namely, the one about the North and the South) is 
true or not, and I should be curious to pursue the matter 
farther by consulting authorities, if the facilities were available. 
Active striving ''to see how the thing will come out" is espe- 
cially useful in subjects involving a problem aspect. Some of 
the examples given above in the chapter on reflective think- 
ing (pp. 172-178) might arouse such striving. Even ab- 
stract problems in geometry and physics appeal to the active 
curiosity of some students. Laboratory problems involving 
experimentation to determine results appeal to others ; voca- 
tional problems to others. The skilled teacher will not only 
use new concrete incidents and instances and striking new 
general interpretations of familiar facts in order to arouse 
curiosity, but will also endeavor to get the students so curious 
that they will not be satisfied until they have found the answers 
to questions which have come up in the discussion. Some 
teachers are especially skilled in having each lesson conclude 
with the class vitally interested in solving some problem which 
they work on during the study period or at home. Thus we 
find that curiosity, which can be easily aroused if the instruction 
includes issues of real social significance, is one of the most 
useful instincts for securing instinctive spontaneous attention. 

Collecting instinct. Utilized in sciences ; possibilities in 
othei' S2ibjects. — The possibilities of utilizing the collecting in- 
stinct have been most thoroughly demonstrated in the teaching 



354 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

of natural science. Thousands of students of botany, geology, 
and zoology have taken great interest in making herbariums 
and collecting rocks and insects. Very commonly such col- 
lections have not represented any very useful intellectual ac- 
tivity, but they are clear evidence of the power of the instinct 
in question. The collecting of books is another striking ex- 
ample. Many teachers become periodically or permanently 
obsessed with the idea of collecting old or rare or typical books 
along certain lines, often without any serious expectation of 
using them for purposes of study. They haunt old bookstores, 
study auction catalogues, and gradually accumulate a lot of 
unused books (so much junk) with which they clutter up their 
houses. Such being the strength of the human tendency to 
collect, it is obviously the teacher's duty to utilize the tend- 
ency as a means of getting students to concentrate their 
attention along useful lines. In the natural sciences the 
pedagogical problem is not so much to find things to collect 
as it is to stimulate reflective, systematic thinking in connec- 
tion with the collections. In the literary and historical subjects 
the collecting must usually take some form that involves the use 
of books. With some students, bibliographical work in getting 
a series of references on a topic will appeal to the collecting 
instinct. The way the bibliographical possibilities open up after 
getting three or four references which lead on to others is 
quite fascinating to a few people. Contemporary magazines, 
railroad folders, announcements of summer and winter resorts 
and of tours, are sources for collections of great utility and 
interest in connection with studies in geography, civics, con- 
temporary drama, contemporary poetry, science, mechanics 
and other subjects. 

Manipulation. Assists in studies through correlation. — 
The instinct of physical activity is not utilized very much in 
the study of most high-school subjects except in the special- 
ized form of the instinct of manipulation. This instinct is 
the natural tendency to be doing something with something, 



INTERESTS AND ECONOMY IN LEARNING 355 

to change the form or arrangement of materials. It is very 
important in the learning and mental progress of young chil- 
dren, since their instinctive tendency to manipulate materials 
not only develops motor control and knowledge of physical 
properties but also involves the solution of many constructive 
problems. In high schools, the shop and laboratory subjects 
are the only ones which offer natural opportunities for man- 
ipulation. For this reason they make a powerful appeal to a 
great many students. This appeal is seen very clearly in 
manual-training or technical high schools, where not only 
are opportunities for manipulation offered in shop and labo- 
ratory, but the other studies are often so conducted that the 
initial interest aroused by manipulation is carried over into 
the more intellectual aspects of the curriculum. Thus, the 
problems in mathematics may be based on projects from 
the shop or laboratory ; compositions may be written about 
the same ; the history courses may emphasize the history 
of inventions, of manufacturing, of labor, etc. This is the 
phase of the instinct of manipulation that most interests us 
here; namely, the way in which it can be utilized to secure 
instinctive, spontaneous attention and interest in the various 
phases of school work. 

Teacher holds attention by his activities. — Somewhat re- 
lated to the instinct of manipulation, as well as to the instinct 
of curiosity, is the natural interest in watching persons or 
animals do things. So strong is this tendency that busy men 
of affairs, who affirm that they have not a moment for an 
interview, will stop and idly watch for five minutes while 
steel beams are being hoisted in the construction of a sky- 
scraper or while a driver whose horse has fallen down gets 
the latter extricated from its harness and onto its feet. In the 
school the teacher can often secure spontaneous attention in 
his direction simply by doing something. His gestures often 
serve this purpose, as do also diagraming or sketching or 
outlining on the blackboard. I have seen students give rapt 



356 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

attention to an instructor who accompanied his lecture by 
making on the board marks which contained no diagrammatic 
suggestion ; yet they got the superficial attention of the stu- 
dents, even though they may not have secured their reflective 
attention. The latter may generally be secured, however, if 
the teacher realizes the necessity of making his diagrams 
mean something to the students as well as to himself. 

Communication. The new basis of recitations. — The in- 
stinct of communication is another strong natural tendency 
that can be utilized to secure spontaneous interest and atten- 
tion. Nearly all persons have this instinct to some degree, 
although some tend to be noncommittal in general. In many 
persons the instinctive tendency to talk is so strong that they 
do it whenever opportunity offers. Certainly the instinct is 
strong enough on the average to make it a very useful factor 
in instruction. All that is necessary in order to use it is to 
carry out the principles laid down in the chapter on training 
in expression (p. 278). 

Cooperation. Limited possibilities for skilled teachers. — 
The instinct to cooperate, or to work together for common 
ends, is one that has seldom been utilized in instruction, but 
which offers some very worthy possibilities which skilled 
teachers may use. In social life we find the instinct mani- 
fested in all kinds of social organizations in which individuals 
get together for some common purposes. Such organizations 
are formed by students themselves and include clubs and 
teams of all sorts. In athletic activities it is easy to arouse 
the interests of large numbers of students by organizing group 
competitions which appeal to the two instincts of emulation 
and cooperation. In order to stimulate all students in this 
way it is necessary to make it possible for all to be on teams 
that have a chance to win. This may be done in many cases 
by organizing competing teams of approximately equal weights 
or equal abilities. Sometimes, as in the case of bowling, each 
team may consist of a skilled player, a medium player, and a 



INTERESTS AND ECONOMY IN LEARNING 357 

novice. In the case of such activities it is evident that coop- 
eration, combined with group emulation, secures great interest. 

Cooperation may be used in the pursuit of studies by 
group assignments in connection with projects which permit 
of division of labor. The example of cooperative endeavor 
growing out of a project in English composition, described 
above (on p. 276), is typical. The educational periodicals con- 
tain many reports of such cooperative projects in English 
courses. While cooperation comes in as a factor in such 
cases, the stimulus to interest is probably not so much the 
desire to do something for the group as it is to be known as 
one who had a hand in the affair or to appear prominently 
before the class or student body as a contributor. Much of 
the endeavor which is attributed to the altruistic cooperation 
should really be attributed to emulation for position. Some 
of it should also be attributed to group emulation ; that is, 
the individual is interested in having his group win, primarily 
because it is his group. Nevertheless, there are some students 
who do not care particularly for position or for group rivalry, 
but who will work zealously and unselfishly for a common 
project. The opportunity to work with others for a group is 
what interests them. While the number of such persons is 
relatively small, the spirit of their endeavor is very desirable 
and very important to society. The teacher should arrange 
to secure their spontaneous interest by giving the cooperative 
opportunities which will appeal to them. The best way to do 
this will be to organize '' contribution recitations," which have 
been discussed above in connection with training in expression 
(p. 288) and will be considered again from another point of 
view later. 

Summary of discussion of use of specific instincts to secure 
attention. — In our discussion of the use of various instincts 
as a means of securing spontaneous interest and attention we 
noted that the appeals to the fear of physical pain and the fear 
of sarcasm and of ridicule, which were used so extensively 



358 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

for centuries, have been largely discontinued — the former 
almost entirely. Appeals to individual emulation, which come 
next in the order of historical development, are also being 
given up in most places. As substitutes for these we find 
quite general and effective use being made of the instinct 
of mental activity and curiosity and the instinct of physical 
activity and manipulation. The instinct of communication 
offers large possibilities, which are beginning to be realized, 
and the instinct of cooperation offers some limited but valu- 
able possibilities, which may be realized by a relatively few 
skilled, idealistic teachers. 

Habitual attention. General attitudes of attention, — In 
addition to certain fundamental instincts upon which teachers 
may depend for securing attention, there gradually develops 
a body of habits of attention upon which the teacher may 
count as children reach the higher grades and high school. 
These habits may be in the form of general attitudes and 
general interests or they may take the form of rather specific 
habitual interests or tendencies to attend. Among the more 
general habits are such common ones as giving attention to 
the teacher, to the responses of other pupils, to books when 
opened, etc. That these are matters of habit rather than of 
instinct comes out most clearly when we contrast schools or 
classes in which they are emphasized and developed with 
schools and classes in which this is not done. Nothing fur- 
nishes such a strong superficial contrast between teachers as 
the habits of attention of their students at the beginning of 
recitation periods. In some rooms pupils, from the moment 
of entering and taking their seats, '' settle down to business," 
which means that they put into operation certain habitual 
attitudes of attention. In a mathematics class, for example, 
they get out paper and pencil, open their books, set down a 
problem, and begin to study it. In some classes, on the other 
hand, the students wait for the teacher to '' start something " ; 
their habits of giving attention in this class all depend upon 



INTERESTS AND ECONOMY IN LEARNING 359 

signals from the teacher, instead of being responses to the 
general situation, '' being in the classroom." Habits of at- 
tention are further illustrated by the tendency, which some 
readers have purposely built up for themselves, of refraining 
from looking up when they are reading in a library and some- 
one comes into the room. Some readers instinctively look 
up at every interruption ; others have schooled themselves 
not to do this. The same habit is built up with children in 
classrooms, and in some model schools where there are hun- 
dreds of visitors both children and teachers get so that the 
entering of strangers causes no interruption in their atten- 
tion to the lesson. 

Habitiial interests in subjects, — In connection with the 
various studies we form thousands of special habits of atten- 
tion and habitual interests. These are best illustrated by the 
attention of advanced specialists, who notice particularly the 
matters related to their own lines of specialization. Thus, in 
glancing over a row of books in a library, a historian will note 
especially books on history, a psychologist those on psychol- 
ogy, etc. Students form similar habits as they progress through 
school. Thus, in high school the teacher of English composi- 
tion, for example, may build upon certain habits, which pupils 
have formed in the grades, of giving attention to capitals, 
periods, and headings, and can assume a certain amount of 
habitual interest in neat papers, even margins, and clearly ex- 
pressed thought, if the children have been well taught. Simi- 
larly, the teacher of third-year science in high school can 
count upon students having habits of observing certain types 
of physical and biological phenomena and having habitual 
interests in certain changes in color, weight, temperature, and 
growth, whose significance they have learned in their previous 
science courses. The necessity of building upon these acquired 
interests and relating instruction to them was emphasized in 
the chapter on apperception. If the teacher can connect the 
new experiences with habitual interests that the students 



36o TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

have formed either in school or out of school, they may 
*'lay hold of the new experiences and reach out after more." 

Teachers must study interests of high-school students. — 
The adequate utilization of both the instinctive and the habit- 
ual interests of students as a means of securing concentration 
of attention and economical learning necessitates a thorough 
knowledge of the interests of high-school boys and girls on 
the part of the high-school teachers. In many cases the 
teacher needs to have his eyes opened and his standpoint 
broadened by getting an insight into the lives of students 
who are of a different type from himself. For example, if 
he is extremely religious, he ought to try to realize the point 
of view of the students in whose life religion does not play 
much part, and vice versa. If he is sociable and convivial, he 
ought to try to get the point of view of the student who is 
bashful and lonesome. If the teacher has never been any- 
thing except a ''grind," he ought to try to appreciate the 
boys whose interests run primarily to athletics and student 
politics. For in all these cases education will progress most 
economically if the energies of the students' instinctive and 
habitual interests can be utilized instead of opposed. I have 
heard it said that one of the best means of attaining the broad 
point of view advocated here is to read George Meredith's 
"Ordeal of Richard Feverel." 

Further practical examples. — In order to appreciate more 
completely the practical bearings of some of the points made 
in this chapter, students should read the references to Char- 
ters' ''Methods of Teaching" and Thorndike's "Principles 
of Teaching" given in the bibliography on page 361. In the 
former, note especially the practical examples, and in the 
latter, work the exercises that apply to high-school instruction. 

Conclusion of discussion of interests. — This concludes our 
discussion of the use of present interests as a means of se- 
curing economy in learning. We have seen that superior 
results are secured by methods of instruction which utilize 



INTERESTS AND ECONOMY IN LEARNING 361 

students' interests. Of the many powerful instincts that might 
be utiHzed as the basis of spontaneous interest in and atten- 
tion to instruction, the largest and best possibilities are found 
in the instincts of mental activity and curiosity, manipulation 
and communication. The skilled teacher will also build upon 
the habitual interests which students have acquired in and 
out of school. To familiarize himself with the instinctive and 
habitual interests of his students, he will make a study of 
adolescent boys and girls of all types. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES 

1. Angell, J. R. Psychology. (Henry Holt and Company, 1908.) 
Pp. 339-362. A brief, attractive discussion of the psychology of instinc- 
tive behavior and of attention. 

2. Charters, W. W. Methods of Teaching. (Row, Peterson and 
Company, 1912.) Pp. 146-184, 246-254. Extensive discussion of 
motives, with many practical illustrations and suggestions. 

3. James, William. Principles of Psychology. (Henry Holt and 
Company, 1890.) Vol. II, pp. 383-441. Most important chapter written 
on human instincts. Very attractive style. 

4. KiRKPATRiCK, E. A. The Fundamentals of Child Study. (The 
Macmillan Company, 1903.) Thorough discussion of maturing of human 
instincts, with practical suggestions. 

5. MacCunn, J. The Maki?ig of Character. (The Macmillan Com- 
pany, 191 3.) An attractive discussion of moral training based on the 
psychology of instincts. See especially pp. 1-68. 

6. Thorndike, E. L. Educational Psychology. Vol. I, The Origi- 
nal Nature of Man. (Teachers College, 191 3.) The most thorough and 
critical treatment of human instincts. Read chap, xvii, entitled The Value 
and Use of Original Tendencies. 

7. Thorndike, E. L. Principles of Teaching. (A. G. Seller, 1906.) 
Pp. 21-39, S^-^li 105-109. The best pedagogical discussion of inter- 
ests and attention, with their instinctive basis. The practical exercises 
should be discussed in class. 

Referred to incidentally in the chapter. 8. Quick, R. H. Educa- 
tio?ial Reformers. (D. Appleton and Company, 1890.) 



CHAPTER XV 

ADAPTING CLASS INSTRUCTION TO DIFFERENCES 

IN CAPACITY 

Main points of the chapter. — i . The method of class instruc- 
tion and recitation which is commonly used involves an enormous 
waste of time for both the fast and the slow members of a class, the 
former often having nothing to do, while the latter are dragged 
along so rapidly that they get little or nothing out of the subject. 

2. Statistical measurements show that the brightest pupil in a 
class of ordinary size can do, in the same amount of time, from 
two to five times as much as the slowest pupil. 

3. Since the year 1900 considerable interest has developed in 
the devising of methods of varying class instruction so as to adapt 
it to the differences in the capacities of the members of the class. 
The following are typical experiments : 

a. The abolishing of all class recitations and the substituting 
of individual instruction, each pupil advancing at his own rate. 
This is known as the Pueblo plan. 

b. The division of classes into slow, medium, and fast sections, each 
advancing at its own rate, partially under the direction of monitors. 

c. Requiring only students who need the recitation to give 
attention to it, and providing special supplementary assignments 
for the fast pupils. 

d. The organization of required periods of supervised study 
during which individual attention is given to individual students by 
the teacher. This is known as the Batavia plan and is discussed at 
length in the next chapter. 

Class instruction needs supplementing to suit individuals. 

— One of the most-needed improvements in class instruction 
which is advocated at the present time is the varying of the 
pace at which members of the class are expected to advance, 

362 



DIFFERENCES IN CAPACITY 



363 



so as to eliminate the enormous waste that commonly results 
from the brightest students being idle a large part of the time 
and the poorest students being dragged along so rapidly that 
they fail to profit by the instruction. People in cities are so 
familiar with the system of class instruction with little or no 
variation for individual needs that they fail to appreciate the 
fact that for many years nearly all instruction was given to 
individuals, and that the present class methods can be greatly 




A FRENCH SCHOOL BEFORE 1789 
Note the method of individual instruction. After Cubberly 

improved by introducing some modifications that would vary 
the subject matter and the pace to suit the varying needs of 
different students. We shall take up briefly the. historical 
development of the present method of class instruction and 
the movement for its modification, and shall describe some 
of the practical innovations that have been tried. 

Historically, individual instruction prevailed for centuries. 
— Up to the nineteenth century the common method of in- 
struction in schools was individual instruction. As a rule, each 



364 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

pupil advanced to the teacher's desk when his turn came, re- 
cited upon the work which he had prepared, received a new 
assignment in the form of directions or questions, and returned 
to his seat, presumably to continue his studying. When there 
were only a few students (as often happens even at the present 
time in some rural schools), and no two at the same stage of 
advancement, this would seem to be the natural method to 
follow. But it was used not only under these circumstances 
but also when schools were quite large and contained many 
students doing the same work. For example, it was used in 
the dame schools, where there were only beginners learning 
to read. Even if there were twenty pupils, the teacher would 
call up each one in turn and, pointing at the alphabet, would 
say, '' That is A ; that is B ; that is C." Then, pointing at 
'' A," she would ask the child, '' What 's that .? " and so on. 
Similar methods were used in advanced classes in the ele- 
mentary school (for example, in arithmetic) and also in the 
Latin grammar schools. The picture given on page 363 
illustrates this practice. 

Exceptions in schools of La Salle and Lancaster. — Excep- 
tions to the dominant individual method down to the first 
part of the nineteenth century are commonly given in the 
histories of education as forerunners of a significant educa- 
tional reform. These exceptions are few and notable. On the 
theoretical side, Comenius (i 592-1670), the great educational 
innovator of the seventeenth century, proposed to substitute 
class instruction for the individual method. On the prac- 
tical side. La Salle (1651-1719), who organized the Brethren 
of the Christian Schools in 1684, introduced simultaneous class 
instruction on a large scale in the schools of this organization, 
which provided very efficient instruction throughout France. 
The Lancasterian monitorial system, which was popular in 
large American cities from 1805 to 1830, also organized class 
or group instruction very effectively. In this system the groups 
were very carefully graded so as to contain about ten pupils 



DIFFERENCES IN CAPACITY 365 

of almost equal rank. Each group was taught by a bright, 
capable student known as a monitor. 

Simultaneous instruction. Adopted during the nineteenth 
century. — These successful innovations contrasted very 
strongly with the poor instruction that prevailed in the ordi- 
nary schools which were using the method of individual in- 
struction. During the nineteenth century, however, fairly 
careful grading of the large numbers of students attending 
city schools became the dominant practice, and along with 
this there developed the almost universal use of the simul- 
taneous method of class instruction in all cities. Naturally, 
since the results accomplished under this system were so 
superior (partially owing to simultaneous instruction but also 
partially caused by other innovations), it seldom occurred to 
a school-teacher or administrator that any improvement could 
be introduced as a modification of the simultaneous method. 
'' Had n't it supplanted the individual method with greatly im- 
proved results 1 " they thought. *' What else could be desired .? " 

Criticized by W. T. Harris. — This feeling of thorough 
satisfaction with pure simultaneous instruction was not shared 
by all school authorities, however. Toward the end of the 
nineteenth century a few of the more progressive leaders 
began to call attention to the defects in this method and to 
suggest modifications which would make some provision for 
varying class instruction so as to meet the needs of students 
of different degrees of ability. Perhaps the greatest practical 
public-school administrator of this period was William T. 
Harris (183 5-1908), Commissioner of Education of the 
United States from 1889 to 1906. As superintendent of the 
schools of St. Louis from 1867 to 1880 Mr. Harris intro- 
duced many remarkable reforms which were adopted by other 
cities much later. He appreciated the advantages as well as 
the defects of the method of simultaneous instruction and 
called attention to both in an article published in 1872. The 
advantages, he said, are : 



366 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

(a) a great increase in the length of recitation [for each pupil, 
since each had as much time as his group] ; (b) far more thorough- 
ness in the discussion of the lesson, sifting the different statements 
and probing the meaning of the same ; {c) great stimulation of the 
mental activity of the pupil through trial and competition with other 
members of his class. These three advantages can scarcely be 
overestimated. They multiply the teacher's power just as organi- 
zation improves the strength of the army. (1 : 266) 

On the other hand, Mr. Harris described the disadvantages 
of simultaneous instruction in the follov^ing w^ords : 

It is this very system that is so organized as to prove the very 
greatest of all causes for the early withdrawal from school. . . . 
The tendency of all classification is to unite pupils of widely differ- 
ent attainments. . . . The consequence is that the lesson is too 
short for some and too long for others. The best pupils in class 
are not tried to the extent of their ability. . . . The poorest pupils 
of the class are strained to their utmost. They are dragged, as it 
were, over the ground. . . . This develops the result that the 
overworked pupils are frequently discouraged and drop out of the 
class and likely enough out of the school altogether. (1 : 266) 

Lock-step in education condemned by P. W. Search. — Per- 
haps the most vehement critic of the simultaneous method 
during the latter part of the nineteenth century was P. W. 
Search, who wrote a book called ''An Ideal School " (1901), 
in which he described experiments to provide for individual 
differences in capacity, that were undertaken in school systems 
of which he had been superintendent. These experiments 
will be described below (p. 379). Mr. Search was typical of 
a small group of schoolmen who were vigorous in their con- 
demnation of what they called '' the lock step in American 
education," thus tending to attach to the simultaneous method 
the odium of a prison practice. These men had relatively little 
effect upon.educational practices, and it was not until after 1900 
that there developed any strong tendency to provide for indi- 
vidual differences in capacity in instruction in public schools. 



DIFFERENCES IN CAPACITY 367 

Recent enthusiastic interest in individual differences. — 

Since 1900 there has been a very radical change in the gen- 
eral attitude toward provisions for individual differences. In 
fact, in contrast with the general indifference which preceded, 
the present period is marked by enthusiastic endeavor not only 
to modify or supplement the simultaneous method but also to 
provide for individual differences by the organization of special 
schools and classes for students of different types of ability 
and interest. 

Stimulated by statistical demonstrations of differences and 
waste. — One of the most important influences in bringing 
about this change of sentiment has been the statistical inves- 
tigations of the amount of difference in capacity which pre- 
vails in the ordinary graded classes, supplemented by statistical 
studies of the retardation of students and of the amount of 
time wasted through students getting behind grade. The work 
of Professor E. L. Thorndike and Dr. Leonard Ayers has 
been particularly influential in this connection. Thorndike 's 
'' Educational Psychology," published in 1903 (revised, 19 10 
and 191 3), and his ''Principles of Teaching" (1906), con- 
tained chapters which demonstrated clearly, on a statistical 
basis, just how great the amount of difference in capacity 
between the fast and the slow members of an ordinary class 
really is. The general statement of this amount of differ- 
ence is made in his ''Principles of Teaching" in the fol- 
lowing words : 

Roughly speaking, the teacher of a class, even in a school graded 
as closely as is possible in large cities, where two classes are pro- 
vided in each building for each grade and where promotion occurs 
every six months, will find in the case of any kind of work some 
pupil who can do from two to five times as much in the same time, 
or do the same amount from two to five times as well, as some 
other pupil. The highest tenth of her class will ia any one trait 
have an average ability from one and three-fourths to four times 
that of the lowest tenth. (10 : 73) 



368 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS * 

Sample papers show extreme differences in ability. — As 
a sample of typical variations in ability in high-school classes, 
Thorndike gives two Latin translations, of which portions are 
quoted below. 

Two translations made by two pupils [A and B] of the same 
grade and class (and age). 

The passage to be translated was as follows : 

Atticus adolescentulus propter affinitatem P. Sulpicii, qui tribu- 
nus plebi interfectus est, non expers fuit illius periculi. Namque 
Anicia, Pomponii consobrina, nupserat (M.) Servio, fratri Sulpicii. 
Itaque interfecto Sulpicio, posteaquam vidit Cinnano tumultu civi- 
tatem esse perturbatam neque sibi dari facultatem pro dignitate 
Vivendi, quin alterutram partem offenderet, dissociatis animis civium, 
cum alii Sullanis, alii Cinnanis faverent partibus, idoneum tempus 
ratus studiis obsequendi suis, Athenas se contulit. 

A's Translation 

Atticus a young man because of his friendship with Sulpicius, 
the tribune of the people who was killed was not free from this 
danger. For Anicia the wife of Pomponius had nursed Servius, 
brother of Sulpicius. And so after Sulpicius was killed and after 
he saw that the state was aroused by the revolt of Cinna and that 
no opportunity was given for him to live in accordance with his 
dignity without offending one or other of the parties, for the minds 
of the people were divided, some favoring the party of Sulla, some 
that of Cinna, and after he thought it was a proper time for pur- 
suing his studies, he betook himself to Athens. 

B's Translation 

Atticus a youth on account of P. Sulpicus who was a trib- 

une of the people, was not of his danger. And for Anicia, 

of Pompey, had , the father of Sulpicuo. And so 

by the killing of Sulpicius, after he saw the state to be disturbed 
by a tumult nor to give to himself the ability on account of his 
dignity, that might offend the other part, the unassociated minds 
of the citizens, with some Sullani other Cinnane might be favored 
by some the time was followed with their desires, Athens 

carried itself. 



DIFFERENCES IN CAPACITY 369 

In comparing these translations it is obvious that pupil B 
needs considerable quizzing and discussion to enable him to 
get the desired results, but that most of the time spent in 
the ordinary translation activity in class would be wasted for 
pupil A. It is evident that the ordinary method of simulta- 
neous class instruction fails to provide adequately for either 
of these pupils. 

A similar contrast appears in the case of the two algebra 
papers quoted on page 370, from Thorndike's " Principles 
of Teaching." These papers were written by two pupils, 
A and B, members of the same class, in a test in algebra. 
The test on which they were based is given below. 

Do these examples as quickly as you can. 
Do not copy them, but put the work right under each example. 
Take the quickest way you can to get the correct answers. 
I. Simplify l^^_^,.^l^._y^^| f 



X — y J \a — b I \x -\-y 

2. What are the values of x and j' if 

S^ + ?>y = 8 and 7^ — 3J^; = 4 

3. A shepherd, being asked how many sheep he had in his flock, 
said, " If I had as many more, half as many more, and seven sheep 
and a half, I should then have 500." How many sheep had he } 

4. What are the values of x and y if 

X -\- V '\x , Vjt — xv 
I ^ =- — — and ^ = 3 

x—y X — y 23 

5. Simplify 

m-\- 71 m — n 

m — n m -\- 11 

771 — 71 771 + 71 

f7t -\- 71 771 — 71 

6. If, to the double of a certain number, 14 be added, the sum 
is 154. What is the number? 



370 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

A's Paper 

(1) =c'^-ir; /j/ J,^ 



III 



(^1 










B's Paper 






fij 



5> + 5 



Y _ 5 ~~ — * 



1 



= I 



Teachers should understand rise of median a7id mode. — 
In order to develop some skill in estimating the range of 
ability represented in classes, teachers should have some prac- 
tice in examining tables showing the distribution of abilities 
or achievements, such as those given on page 373. A most 
necessary and useful figure for making comparisons is one 
that will represent the ''center of gravity," or central tend- 
ency of the group. Ordinarily, persons who have not had 
statistical training use the average for this purpose, but this 
usually involves elaborate calculations which consume time. 
A simpler method is to find the median (that is, the point 
on either side of which lie 50 per cent of the cases) by noting 



DIFFERENCES IN CAPACITY 371 

the total number of cases, dividing by 2 to get half the num- 
ber, and then counting in this amount from either end. A 
still easier figure to use to represent the central tendency of 
a group that is normally distributed is the mode. This is the 
most frequent grade of ability shown in the table. Thus, in 
the left-hand table on page 373 the mode would be 40 to 44. 
In this case it is almost the same as the median. 

Teachers should study statistical tables of abilities. — The 
reader should now examine the left-hand table on page 373 
and derive the answers to the following questions : 

1 . What is the lowest score made 1 

2. What is the highest score made t 

3. How many times is the lowest score contained in 
the highest .? 

4. How many individuals approximated the lowest score } 

5 . How many approximated the highest score ? 

6. What is the most frequent score made ; that is, the 
mode ? 

7. How many times is the mode contained in the highest 
score (or scores) t 

8. If the instruction is adapted to the middle part of the 
class (roughly, the mode), how much time will the brightest 
pupil (or pupils) probably have to waste t 

9. How many times is the lowest score (or are the lowest 
scores) contained in the mode 1 

10. If the instruction is adapted to the middle part of the 
class, how many times too fast will the pace be for the slowest 
pupil (or pupils) } 

Answer the same questions for the table on page 374. 

Bright pupil may have half of his time to loaf. — When- 
ever a table showing the distribution of abilities of students 
in classes is found, it should be studied by deriving the 
answers to the above questions. This practice will make con- 
crete and fix in the student's mind the statement that in 
the ordinary graded classes that are taught entirely by the 



372 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

simultaneous method the brightest pupils are likely to have 
from one fourth to one half of their time to loaf and the 
slowest to be dragged along at a pace that is twice as great 
as it should be for them. Even worse is the condition when 
the whole class period is used merely for class recitations on 
material studied at home. Under these conditions the whole 
class period is often wasted for the brightest pupils, while 
the slowest ones get almost nothing out of it. 

Distribution of abilities in high-school classes. Speed in 
reading. — Courtis investigated the speed attained in normal 
rapid reading and in careful reading among one hundred 
seventy-five high-school children. He concluded that if his 
test had been so administered as to give the fastest readers 
a chance to do their best, the 

pupils would undoubtedly have varied from 200 words per minute 
to 500 words per minute for normal reading, and from 60 words 
per minute to 400 words per minute for careful reading. When 
the vital nature of ability to read and understand is considered, 
this range of ability to read the simplest prose becomes very 
significant. (12 : 389) 

Although Courtis gives these comparisons for the high school 
as a whole, they probably apply equally to the range in a 
given grade, since his figures show little change in the aver- 
age rate of reading throughout the grades. 

Algebra. — W. S. Monroe investigated the abilities of first- 
year high-school students in algebra by using a series of care- 
fully devised tests. He secured such results as are shown in 
the table on page 374. 

Arithmetic. — In an investigation of methods of teaching 
commercial arithmetic in high schools, G. A. Beers conducted, 
in his regular high-school arithmetic classes, tests in the vari- 
ous phases of the subject — addition, subtraction, multipli- 
cation, aliquot parts, etc. The results were carefully scored and 
distribution tables constructed for each class in each process. 



DIFFERENCES IN CAPACITY 



373 



Abilities of Sixth-Grade 
Girls in observing Mis- 
spelled Words 



Abilities of Fourth-Grade 

Girls in thinking of the 

Opposites of Words 



Number of Mis- 


Number of 


spellings NOTICED 


Children 


lO to 14 


I girl 


15 to 19 


6 girls 


20 to 24 


10 girls 


25 to 29 


18 girls 


30 to 34 


25 girls 


35 to 39 


27 girls 


40 to 44 


35 girls 


45 to 49 


18 girls 


50 to 54 


25 girls 


55 to 59 


17 girls 


60 to 64 


18 girls 


65 to 69 


10 girls 


70 to 74 


3 girls 


75 to 79 


2 girls 


80 to 84 


2 girls 


85 to 89 


I girl 


90 to 94 


I girl 




Score made in Test 


Number of 


WITH Opposites 


Children 


-9 to -5 


3 girls 


— 4 to 


5 girls 


to 4 


8 girls 


5 to 9 


10 girls 


10 to 14 


33 girls 


15 to 19 


36 girls 


20 to 24 


29 girls 


25 to 29 


16 girls 


30 to 34 


II girls 


35 to 39 


4 girls 


40 to 44 


3 girls 



The minus scores given above result 
from a pupil's writing the wrong oppo- 
sites for words and not writing enough 
correct opposites to balance her errors 



rn_ 



graphic representation of the above statistics 



Note. The above data, quoted from Thorndike's " Principles of Teaching," 
illustrate the use of tables of frequency and graphic methods of representing 
the same. 



374 



TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 



Abilities of First-year High-school Students in Algebra 

A two-minute test in working simple multiplication problems 
in algebra of the type 4(3 x — 4) = ? , — 5 (— 4 x 6 ^) = ? 








Attempts 






Rights 




Number of Examples 














DONE 


Boys 


Girls 


Total 


Boys 


Girls 


Total 


34 




I 


I 








33 




I 


I 








32 










I 


I 


31 














30 




I 


I 




I 


I 


29 




I 


I 








28 




I 


I 








27 


I 


4 


5 




2 


2 


26 


3 


I 


4 


2 


I 


3 


25 


2 


2 


4 


I 


2 


3 


24 


5 


2 


7 


3 


I 


4 


23 


5 


8 


13 


4 


6 


10 


22 


7 


8 


IS 


4 


4 


8 


21 


3 


9 


12 


2 


7 


9 


20 


2 


6 


8 


3 


10 


13 


19 


7 


8 


IS 


6 


3 


9 


18 


13 


13 


26 


II 


7 


18 


17 


12 


15 


27 


8 


8 


16 


16 


II 


18 


29 


ID 


14 


24 


15 


17 


17 


34 


12 


14 


26 


14 


7 


7 


14 


12 


16 


28 


13 


7 


16 


23 


10 


II 


21 


12 


3 


7 


ID 


5 


7 


12 


II 


3 


6 


9 


5 


3 


8 


10 


5 


2 


7 


4 


9 


13 


9 


I 


I 


'^ 


3 


4 


7 


8 


3 




3 


3 


9 


12 


7 




I 


I 


I 


3 


4 


6 


2 




2 


2 


4 


6 


5 








3 


I 


4 


4 










2 


2 


3 




I 


I 


2 


2 


4 


2 










2 


2 


I 








I 


I 


2 











I 


I 


2 


Total no. of pupils 


118 


156 


274 


118 


156 


274 


Average score 


17-3 


18.0 


17.7 


I5-S 


15.2 


iS-32 


Average deviation 


3-54 


376 


3.61 


3-85 


4-Si 


4.2 


Variation 


20.5 


20.9 


20.4 


24.8 


29.7 


27-S 



DIFFERENCES IN CAPACITY 375 

Approximately the same range of variation in abilities was 
shown as in the case of elementary-school classes ; that is, the 
brightest students did from four to six times as much as the 
slowest ones and (roughly) twice as much as the median pupils. 

Teachers shoidd learn to make and read graphs of dijfer- 
ences in abilities. — As a result of such statistical practice as 
that described on page 371 the teacher or prospective teacher 
should get into the habit of thinking of any fair-sized class 
that he teaches as being a group made of a great variety of 
abilities distributed with the mode near the middle and with 
fewer students for each degree of ability as one proceeds toward 
the high and low ends of the class. In order to make it easier 
to think of this condition, it is desirable to draw graphs show- 
ing the distribution of abilities in pictured form so that it can 
easily be taken in at a glance. Such graphs are sometimes 
called surfaces of frequency and are most easily made on 
square-ruled or cross-section paper. Degrees of ability are 
represented from left to right on the horizontal line, and the 
number of cases for each degree of ability is represented by 
the height of the column erected at the appropriate place on 
the horizontal, or base, line. 

A simple explanation of such a surface of frequency is 
given by Thorndike in connection with the distribution of 
stature in American boys ten and a half years old. He says : 

Out of 1000 boys there are 

Between 109 and 113 centimeters tall, 2 boys 
Between 113 and 1 1 7 centimeters tall, 5 boys 
Between 117 and 121 centimeters tall, 25 boys 
Between 121 and 125 centimeters tall, 97 boys 
Between 125 and 129 centimeters tall, 199 boys 
Between 129 and 133 centimeters tall, 255 boys 
Between 133 and 137 centimeters tall, 228 boys 
Between 137 and 141 centimeters tall, 126 boys 
Between 141 and 145 centimeters tall, 49 boys 
Between 145 and 149 centimeters tall, 11 boys 
Between 149 and 153 centimeters tall, 4 boys 



376 



TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 



The facts of the above table become clearer to the eye if, 
instead of the numbers 2, 5, 25, 97, etc., we draw 1000 little 
lines as in [the first of the figures below], letting each line stand 
for one boy. (9:9) 



i33 






ioscm 113 117 m ms 129 133 i3t ui Ms ud iS3cm 

EXAMPLE OF A SURFACE OF FREQUENCY, REPRESENTING STATURE 

OF 1000 AMERICAN BOYS 

Represents statistics shown in table on page 375 






109 cm 113 iir m 1ZS izo 133 137 ui us us iS3cm 

EXAMPLE OF A DISTRIBUTION CURVE. SAME DATA AS THAT PRE- 
SENTED ABOVE, BUT REPRESENTED HERE AS AN OUTLINE INSTEAD 

OF AS A SURFACE 
From Thorndike's " Individuality " 

Proceeding in a similar way, the left-hand figure on page 373 
is drawn to represent the facts given in the table shown above 
the drawing. Beginning at the left, or lower end of ability, 



DIFFERENCES IN CAPACITY 



377 



the curve would read, in a rough way, as follows : Here is 
one subject who made a score of lo to 14. As we proceed 
to the right the piles increase in size until we reach the mode 
at 40 to 44 ; from here to the right the piles decrease in 
size until we reach the highest score at 90 to 94, repre- 
sented by one girl. 

Himian abilities distributed according to normal-freqiie^tcy 
surface. — The graphs, or surfaces, pictured on pages 'h7^-'h77 
approximate what is known as the normal-frequency surface. 
The measurements of any biological characteristic (plant or 
animal), which is studied in a sufficient number of cases of 




MEMORY SPAN FOR DIGITS IN 
129 WOMEN STUDENTS 



'-'^ 



REACTION TIMES OF 252 COL- 
LEGE FRESHMEN 



Curves showing general type of distribution of simple mental abilities of mature 
students. After Thomdike. (15 : 325) 

individuals of the same general type, will appear in the form 
of the normal-frequency surface when they are plotted. In 
the case of human beings these biological measurements might 
be made of a ver}^ simple characteristic, such as the length of 
the second joint of the index finger in five hundred English 
male adults ; or they might be of a very complex charac- 
teristic, such as the height of English male adults (total 
height being considered complex because it is really com- 
posed of the sum total of the lengths of a great many 
bones). Even measurements of mental characteristics of 
human beings who are all of the same general type show 
this normal form of distribution. Thus, if we tested three 
hundred first-year high-school boys in their ability to add 



378 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

numbers, to memorize nonsense syllables, to mark out all 
the verbs in a printed page, etc. the surfaces of frequency 
which we should get when the results were plotted would 
approximate the normal curve. Examples of such curves of 
distribution or surfaces of frequency for human abilities are 
shown in the figures on page 377. 

Hence abilities and marks in ordinary classes follow normal 
curve. — Similar normal curves are obtained if the marks 
made by a sufficient number of students of the same grade 
in any school subject are tabulated and then plotted, pro- 
vided these marks represent the real relative achievements. 
Thus, if a teacher of algebra with five classes of thirty stu- 
dents each would give at the end of the first semester a 
test which would give all pupils a chance to show just how 
much and how well they could do in a limited period of 
time, the one hundred fifty scores which resulted would 
prove to be distributed according to the normal curve, A 
special technique must be observed in such testing, which 
will be discussed in Chapter XXII. The distributions shown 
in Monroe's table on page 374 give the results of such an 
algebra test and illustrate the normal distribution of abilities 
of high-school students. 

In view of the fact that reliable tests of the mental abili- 
ties of nonselected groups show the normal distribution, the 
teacher of any subject in high school should form the habit 
of expecting such a distribution of the term grades or final 
grades of his students when he has a sufficient number ; that 
is, if he has only five, ten, or even fifteen students in one 
class in algebra, the distribution might be different, but if 
he has fifty in two or more classes, the chances are pretty 
large that the normal distribution will be found, and this is 
almost certain if he has ninety or more pupils in the same 
subject and grade. (Compare 13 and 14.) In more con- 
crete terms, this would mean that if the teacher was using 
a marking system consisting of the letters A, B, C, D, E, 



DIFFERENCES IN CAPACITY 379 

his grades or marks in the long run should be distributed 
roughly as follows : 

3 per cent of the grades should be A 
22 per cent of the grades should be B 
50 per cent of the grades should be C 
22 per cent of the grades should be D 

3 per cent of the grades should be E 

Typical experiments in adapting instruction to . differences 
in capacity. — The statistical proofs of the amount of the 
differences in capacity to be found in ordinary classes have 
aroused a general interest in securing a means of modifying 
the method of simultaneous class instruction in such a way 
as to vary the pace for the slow, the medium, and the fast 
pupils. A number of experiments have been tried, and some 
of these will be discussed under the following headings : 

1. Abolishing all class instruction and reverting to the 
individual method : the Pueblo plan. 

2. Self -conducted homogeneous groups : a modified form 
of the monitorial scheme. 

3 . Recitations only for students who need them ; seat work 
for others. 

4. Required supervised study periods supplementary to 
recitation periods : the Batavia scheme. 

I. Abolishing class instruction and reverting to individ- 
ual instruction: the Pueblo plan. — In 1888 P. W. Search 
became superintendent of the schools of Pueblo, Colorado. 
He found the parents of the high-school students complain- 
ing of over-pressure in connection with home study. To 
relieve this situation, all home study was abolished and 
experiments undertaken to have all studying done during 
school hours. The final result was a scheme in which 
studying occupied the greater part of the school day and 
nearly all recitations were abolished. Each pupil, working 
at his desk, advanced as rapidly as he could master the as- 
signments. Naturally, some did much more than others. 



38o TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

For example, Mr. Search, in his book entitled '' An Ideal 
School," describes the achievements of the members of a 
Latin class that was studying Caesar. During a given length 
of time the fastest pupil completed 140 chapters, the slowest 
only 40 chapters. One pupil completed no chapters, three 
completed 95, five completed 90, and one completed only 
45. The rest of the members were distributed between 
these extremes. 

These figures show approximately the same relations be- 
tween students of different degrees of ability as were brought 
out in the tables given above. Thus the brightest pupil did 
three and a half times as much as the slowest, and twice as 
much as the median. Instead of marking time while most 
of the class accomplished the amount ordinarily done, the 
brightest forged ahead. Moreover, instead of the slow pupils 
being dragged over assignments which they had not mas- 
tered, they worked diligently as long as was necessary on the 
amount that they were capable of mastering. There was 
evidence in the form of individual recitations and quizzes 
and examinations to show that pupils who covered given 
assignments did so satisfactorily. 

Several favorable reports 07i Pueblo plan. — The Pueblo 
plan was tried in a few other places, and in some cases very 
favorable reports were made concerning its success. Occa- 
sionally graduate students in my classes, who have been 
skilled high-school teachers, have reported that they use the 
Pueblo scheme regularly in teaching classes in mathematics 
and have found it works quite satisfactorily. They state that 
they never have any class discussions even in attacking a new 
principle. Each pupil begins work on a given principle or 
new operation when he reaches it, and the teacher, in passing 
around the room, watches him and makes such suggestions 
as the student seems to need. 

Too difficult for unskilled teacher to keep track of one hun- 
dred fifty individuals, — One of my students (Mr. I. M. Allen), 



DIFFERENCES IN CAPACITY 38 1 

however, reported an experiment with the Pueblo plan that 
brought out a serious objection to its being used by any 
except skilled, resourceful teachers. As principal of a large 
high school he was interested in finding some method that 
his teachers could use to meet the needs of pupils of varying 
capacities. He decided to try the Pueblo plan himself with 
an algebra class before asking his teachers to use it. He did 
so, and found that it accomplished all that was claimed for it 
by its advocates, but that it taxed his ingenuity and resource- 
fulness to keep track of thirty students in one class, all of 
whom were progressing at different rates. He decided that if 
it troubled him to keep track of thirty pupils by the method 
of pure individual instruction, it would be entirely too much 
to expect an ordinary mathematics teacher to keep track of 
one hundred fifty students, assuming that he had five classes 
with thirty students in each. 

Additional objections to the Pueblo plan are based on its 
elimination of all the social elements that accompany the class 
method of instruction. The chief value lost is the training in 
expression that students receive in well-conducted contribution 
recitations. Another important loss is the training in think- 
ing in a complex social situation such as the group recitation 
offers. In view of these losses, as well as the difficulty of 
keeping track of so many individuals at different stages of 
advancement, most educators would not favor the Pueblo 
plan with its abolishing of class recitations. 

2. Self -conducted homogeneous groups: a modified form of 
the monitorial system. — A modified form of the monitorial 
system was used for years in the geometry classes in the 
high school which I attended. The classes usually num- 
bered from twenty to twenty-five students and met in fairly 
large rooms with ample blackboard space. Each class was 
divided into three sections containing from six to eight stu- 
dents each. The brightest students composed the first section, 
the medium students the second, and the slow students the 



382 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

third section. The first section had as a permanent monitor, 
or captain, one of its most capable students ; that is, one who 
possessed executive and teaching ability as well as ability in 
mathematics. The second section had a similar monitor from 
among its own numbers, one who might not be as capable or 
quick in mathematics as the members of the first section, but 
who was among the best in his own section and had execu- 
tive and teaching capacity. For the third or slow section, 
monitors from the other sections were provided from week 
to week or for slightly longer periods. Each of these moni- 
tors for the third section would be absent from the recitations 
of his own section during his period of service with the third 
section, but he could easily keep up or catch up with his 
own section. 

Bright section completes plane and solid geometry i7i one 
year. — After the teacher had got the class started as a 
single group on the first book, and some of the funda- 
mental ideas of geometric procedure had been established, 
the sections were organized on the basis of the students' 
records in previous work as well as their ability as shown 
in the new work. Each section was then assigned a corner 
of the room as its regular recitation place, and henceforth 
each section proceeded at its own pace through the geometry. 
The first section commonly completed the plane and solid 
parts of Wentworth's Geometry in one year. The medium 
section usually completed the plane geometry only (that is, 
five books), as is commonly done by classes using the simul- 
taneous method. The slow section usually got through about 
four books, but most of its members managed to do this much 
with a fair degree of thoroughness, instead of being dragged 
over the whole five books in an uncomprehending way, as 
commonly occurs when the ordinary class method is used. 

Three recitations simultaneously zvithout confusion. — At 
the beginning of each recitation period the monitor of each 
section assigned each student a proposition or exercise to 



DIFFERENCES IN CAPACITY 383 

demonstrate. Each pupil put on the blackboard the figure 
to be used in his demonstration, with a few of the more im- 
portant statements in the demonstration. This usually took 
from five to ten minutes. The remainder of the period was 
spent by each section listening to and discussing the demon- 
strations by its members. Usually these were demonstrations 
that had been studied out at home, but if the teacher were 
wise enough to suggest it, the period was partially used for 
group study and discussion of new propositions or exercises. 
Inasmuch as no rowdy behavior was tolerated in the school, 
and the students spoke in low tones but sufficiently loud to 
be heard by a small, compact group, the three recitations pro- 
ceeding simultaneously produced no confusion. The teacher 
divided his time between the sections as he thought best. 
Sometimes he simply looked on ; sometimes he made sug- 
gestions ; sometimes he took full charge of a section for as 
long as he saw fit. 

StiniiLlated intense study of difficidties by grotLps. — This 
scheme had many educational advantages apart from its vari- 
ation of the pace to suit the capacities of the three types of 
students. The chief of the advantages was the intense geo- 
metrical thinking done by the members of each section when 
it was working out puzzling points in propositions or exer- 
cises. The sections being fairly homogeneous, a serious dif- 
ficulty for one member of a given section would be likely 
to be a difficulty for all its members. Hence it would be 
worth while for the group to work it out. This condition 
contrasts very strongly with that presented in recitations 
conducted for the whole class. In the latter case, difficulties 
which would puzzle the slow students for fifteen minutes 
might not be difficulties at all for the bright pupils. The 
teacher either has to let the bright pupils tell the solution, 
thus depriving the slow ones of participation in the activity 
of finding it, or he has to call on the slow ones to work it 
out, allowing the fast ones to mark time meanwhile. 



384 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

Another advantage of these sectional recitations is the 
fact that each student gets an opportunity each day to re- 
cite at some length to an audience that is usually atten- 
tive and critical. 

Only skilled teacher can use method stLccessfully. — Need- 
less to say, an unskilled teacher in a school v^here there was 
no well-defined spirit of work and serious behavior would 
have difficulty in administering this monitorial sectional 
method in geometry, but a skilled teacher in whose class- 
room the spirit of serious work and application always pre- 
vailed could probably secure better educational results by 
some modification of this system than by any other. It could 
easily be adapted to use in other mathematics classes, such as 
those in algebra and trigonometry. It could probably be used 
to advantage in any subject where there is a large amount of 
fairly routinized practice in studying and mastering material 
in textbooks — for example, in Latin translation. In all such 
cases the teacher must be more interested in the process of 
thoughtful study and mastery of the material by the students 
than in covering a given amount of ground. 

3. Recitations only for students who need them; seat 
work for others. — Both of the methods described so far 
(namely, the Pueblo scheme of individual instruction or 
progress and the monitorial sectional plan) provide for dif- 
ferent rates of advancement by different students throughout 
the course. The scheme now to be described holds the 
class together as far as progress through the essential steps 
of the subject is concerned, but enables the brighter pupils 
to do more intensive work at each step and saves their time 
by excusing them from paying attention during some of the 
recitations. 

Time wasted by bright students in algebra recitations. — 
The desirability of such a method is illustrated from one 
period in my own experience, when I taught algebra very 
unskillfully in high school, using the ordinary method of 



DIFFERENCES IN CAPACITY 385 

conducting recitations upon material that had been studied 
at home the night before. My younger brother was in one 
class, and, being a bright, conscientious student, .he mastered 
at home every evening, without assistance, the lesson for the 
next day. Consequently, when he came to class, there was 
practically nothing for him to do but sit as a spectator, except 
when he was given an opportunity to contribute. I recall two 
other students in the same class that were the only ones who 
caused me any concern about discipline. They also were 
bright pupils who had got all the meat out of the set of 
problems under discussion, but instead of sitting as polite 
spectators they insisted on devising ingenious pranks that 
amused me so much that I was always at a loss to know what 
to do. Unfortunately it did n't occur to me to excuse them 
from participation in the recitation and to devise assignments 
of extra problems that would interest them and serve as an 
outlet for their ingenious energy. 

Three factors in scheme for special seat work. — Such a 
scheme for saving time and for proportioning to their capaci- 
ties the amount of work expected of individual pupils is often 
used by skilled teachers who have mastered the ordinary 
routine of handling classes and are interested in devising 
and organizing varied assignments. When skillfully admin- 
istered, the scheme involves at least three features ; namely, 
(i) the minimum essentials of the subject to be covered by 
the slow students; (2) supplementary assignments for the 
bright pupils ; (3) arrangements to conduct recitations only 
for those who need them. 

I . Standardized minimum essentials for the slow. — The 
idea of standardizing quite definitely the minimum essentials 
in elementary and high-school studies has only recently been 
generally applied. The importance of the practice can readily 
be appreciated when one considers, for example, what a very 
small part of grammar-grade arithmetic is necessary for the 
student who is lacking in mathematical capacity and who, as 



386 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

a consequence, would not secure a position in life as an ac- 
countant. For such a student, only the bare essentials of the 
subject should suffice to give him a passing grade. The same 
principle applies to most high-school subjects, and its applica- 
tion is readily illustrated by the topic of factoring in algebra, 
which has already been discussed from this point of view 
on page 82. 

2. Standardized, mimeographed, supplem,entary assign- 
ments for bright pupils. — Supplementary assignments for 
the brighter students should be just as definitely routinized 
and standardized as the minimum essentials for the slow. 
Hence, the teacher should have, very definitely outlined on 
paper, statements of supplementary topics or problems, with 
exact references to material to be used in studying, means 
of securing the material, etc. Sometimes the supplementary 
material could be in the form of another textbook to be 
bought by the student and brought to class regularly. More 
commonly, the teacher will have in the room a small working 
collection of books for supplementary assignments. Such 
supplementary collections are provided by the school author- 
ities for every room in well-equipped elementary schools and 
should also be provided in high schools. Sometimes the 
student could be sent to the high-school library. The main 
point of this paragraph is that all the supplementary assign- 
ments should be definitely planned, and, if possible, mimeo- 
graphed outlines prepared so that a student's assignment 
could be given to him in a moment by brief reference to 
the outline. Much of this assigning could be done while the 
class is assembling. In some cases supplementary assign- 
ments for a week could be outlined in a five-minute con- 
ference with the student. 

3. Excuse individuals to zvork at desks or in library or 
laboratory . — If the classroom is of ordinary fair size, students 
who are excused from participation in the recitation can work 
at the back of the room without any serious loss of time. If 



DIFFERENCES IN CAPACITY 3^7 

the teacher estabhshes the right general spirit of work, all 
students will form such habits of application and of disregard 
of distracting conditions as were described above on page 359. 
In some cases students who are excused from participation 
in the recitation could be permitted to work in the library or 
in a laboratory with perfect assurance that they would use 
their time seriously and profitably. 

Examples of siiccessfid 7ise of the method. — A description 
of a method of conducting algebra classes along lines some- 
what similar to those described above is found in a pamphlet 
entitled ''The Laboratory Method in Teaching Mathematics," 
by Hornbrook (3). I have seen the method used in classes 
in German where the class work consisted of reading or trans- 
lating selections that had been studied at home. In each class 
two or three of the brighter students were excused two periods 
a week on the average and given long reading assignments 
in other German books. These they read and prepared in 
the form of epitomes or selected narratives, which they told 
in German to the class from time to time. The ordinary 
class in foreign language, when conducted by the transla- 
tion method, furnishes perhaps the best argument for such 
variations as w^e have been describing, since the class time 
is very commonly wasted for the brighter pupils who have 
prepared their translations conscientiously at home or during 
study periods. 

4. Required supervised study periods supplementary to 
recitation periods : the Batavia scheme. — Up to this point 
in the chapter we have considered three types of experiments 
in var}dng class instruction so as to provide for individual 
differences in capacity ; namely, the Pueblo plan of indi- 
vidual instruction, the monitorial sectional plan, and the plan 
of providing supplementary assignments for the brighter stu- 
dents instead of requiring them to participate in all recita- 
tions. The fourth scheme for securing individual instruction 
does so by having regular supervised study periods for all 



388 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

subjects in place of part of the time usually given to recita- 
tions. During these periods the teacher gives attention to 
the progress of individual students, skillfully aiding the slow 
ones by questions or suggestions, and providing supplemen- 
tary assignments for the rapid workers. This is known as the 
Batavia plan, owing to its successful use and propagation by 
John Kennedy, Superintendent of Schools in Batavia, New 
York. From the standpoint of provisions for individual dif- 
ferences it varies from the Pueblo plan in that the class pro- 
gresses as a whole. It could be combined with the three-section 
monitorial scheme by requiring a part of the time spent by 
each section in the classroom to be devoted to supervised 
study. If administered to the best advantage, it should in- 
clude the plan of minimum essentials for the slow students 
and supplementary assignments for the bright students de- 
scribed on pages 384-387. Inasmuch as the introduction 
of required periods for supervised study in school is one of 
the most important reforms demanded at the present time, 
and as the proper organization of such supervised study in- 
volves a special technique, we shall devote a special chapter 
to this topic. 

In addition to the schemes for varying class instncction so 
as to provide for individual differences in capacity, there are 
numerous administrative arrangements in the form of special 
schools or special classes. To find accounts of these provi- 
sions, the reader should examine the Proceedings of the Na- 
tional Education Association from 1909 to the present time. 

Conclusion of discussion of adapting instruction to individual 
differences. — This will conclude our discussion of the adapta- 
tion of class instruction to differences in capacity. On the his- 
torical side we noted that individual instruction prevailed for 
a long time and in cities was almost completely displaced 
during the nineteenth century by the method of simultaneous 
class instruction. The latter method involves enormous waste 
of time for both the especially slow and the especially bright 



DIFFERENCES IN CAPACITY 389 

students. This was pointed out by a few educational leaders 
at the end of the nineteenth century, but little sentiment was 
aroused in favor of adequate variations in instruction to suit 
varying capacities until statistical proof of the differences in 
capacity and the amount of waste in the ordinary class was 
presented by Thorndike and others. There is now a general 
interest in avoiding this waste, and various types of schemes 
to combine class instruction with variations to meet the needs 
of individuals are being tried. Three of these were discussed 
in this chapter, and another, namely, supervised study, will 
be described in the next chapter. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES 

General and practical discussions, i. Harris, W. T. The Early 
Withdrawal of Pupils from Schools. In Proceedmgs of the National 
Edtication Association^ 1872, pp. 266-269. 

2. Holmes, W.H. School Organization and the Individual Child. 
(The David Press, Worcester, Mass., 191 2.) The best summary of all 
phases of the subject. 

3. HoRNBROOK. The Laboratory Method in Teaching Mathe- 
matics. (American Book Company.) 

4. Mark, H. T. Individuality and the Moral Aiiti i7i Aine7'ican 
Education. (Longmans, Green & Co., 1901.) Good general discussion 
of American practices. 

5. Search, P. W. A71 Ideal School. (D. Appleton and Company, 
1 90 1.) Advocates almost pure individual instruction. Best discussion of 
Pueblo plan. See pp^28-37 and 158-176. 

6. Search, P. W. Individual Teaching : the Pueblo Plan. Educa- 
tional Review^ February, 1894, Vol. VII, pp. 154-170. 

7. SiDERS, W. R. In Class Instruction how can the Individual be 
Reached. In Proceedings of the Natio7ial Education Association.^ 
1909, pp. 175-182. Excellent practical article. 

8. Swift, E. J. Mind i7i the Making. (Charles Scribner's Sons, 
1908.) Pp. 253-255. Reports repetition of Pueblo plan with favorable 
results. 

9. Thorndike, E. ' L. I7idividuality . (Houghton Mifflin Com- 
pany, 1 9 II.) Brief popular statement of influence of original nature in 
determining individuality. 



390 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

lo. Thorndike, E. L. F7^mciples of Teaching. (A. G. Seller, 
1906.) Pp. 68-104. The best single chapter on Individual differences. 

Statistical discussions. 1 1. Ayers, L. P. Laggards in Our Schools. 
(The Russell Sage Foundation, 1 909.) Standard monograph on retarded 
pupils. 

1 2. Courtis, S. A. Standard Tests In English. Elementary School 
Teacher, Vol. XIV, pp. 374-392. Incidental material on range of indi- 
vidual differences in classes. 

13. Dearborn, W. F. School and University Grades. Btilletin 
No. ^68 of the University of Wisconsin. Standard discussion of dis- 
tribution of grades. 

14. Foster, W. T. Administ7'atio7t of the College Ctirriculum. 
(Houghton Mifflin Company, 191 1.) Chapter XIII deals with the dis- 
tribution of grades. 

15. Thorndike, E. L. Educational Psychology. (Teachers Col- 
lege, 1 91 4.) Vol. Ill, pp. 142-388. The most thorough and critical 
discussion of individual differences. 



CHAPTER XVI 

SUPERVISED STUDY 

Main points of the chapter. — i . The supervision of individual 
students who are studying silently at their desks should replace a con- 
siderable part of the time now spent on recitations and home study. 

2. Poor students especially fail to profit under the system of 
recitations based upon home study. 

3. Precisely measured, experimental investigations show that 
supervised study improves the work of poor students. 

4. Divided periods, part for recitation and part for supervised 
study, should be arranged as regular parts of the daily programs 
in most high-school subjects. ., 

5. Conditions favorable to study are those favorable to concen- 
tration of attention. 

a. Physical conditions and certain routine habits may be easily 
improved. 

b. Spontaneous interest and concentrated thinking are more 
difficult to secure but are essential. 

6. A special technique of supervising study should be mastered 
by teachers. It should include 

a. Skill in determining the character of the progress being made 
by students while they are studying. 

b. Skill in stimulating and aiding this progress by means of 
questions and suggestions without assisting too much. 

Supervised study should partially replace recitations and 
home study. — Organized periods for supervised study in 
high school should replace a considerable part of the time 
spent on recitations in school and studying at home. This 
reform and the arrangements for adapting instruction to dif- 
ferences in capacity are the two reforms most needed to in- 
crease the efficiency of classroom instruction, As indicated 

391 



392 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

at the end of the preceding chapter, the two reforms are 
intimately related, since supervised-study periods furnish one 
of the best opportunities for varying assignments and giv- 
ing instruction to individual pupils. By siipervised study, 
as used throughout this chapter, is meant the supervision of 
individual pupils who are studying silently at their desks, 
not the supervision of a discussion by the class of a new 
assignment, which in recent years has been designated as 
the study lesson. 

Three elements in efficient instructions: varied assign- 
ments, supervised st7idy, group recitations. — Historically we 
have interesting developments in connection with studying, 
just as we have in the case of provisions for individual in- 
struction. Originally pupils studied individual assignments, 
unsupervised, at their desks, and recited as individuals to 
the teacher at his desk. This system was replaced by the 
class method, in which the students studied class assign- 
ments, either at home or during practically unsupervised 
study periods in school, and recited afterwards as a class. 
The plan proposed here includes the three following ele- 
ments : (i) Similar assignrnents (which vary in intensive- 
ness) to all members of the same class or section of a class, 
thus providing for some uniformity and some variation ; 
(2) supervision of individuals of the group which is study- 
ing, by the teacher who passes around the room giving sug- 
gestions to individuals and asking each one such questions as 
may seem desirable ; (3) group recitations either of the class 
as a whole or in sections. This chapter is concerned only 
with the second of these elements ; namely, supervised study. 

Strong social demands to sicbstitute supervised study for 
home study. — Until recently the almost universal practice 
in American high schools included class recitations based 
upon home study or upon infrequent, almost wholly unsuper- 
vised study periods. For some time, however, vigorous at- 
tacks have been made on the home-study part of this practice, 



SUPERVISED STUDY 393 

and many schools are now operating on the basis of regularly 
organized, frequent, carefully supervised study periods with 
little or no home study. One of the most impressive discus- 
sions of this situation appeared in the Ladies Home Journal 
for January, 191 3. The article included letters from suc- 
cessful school superintendents and principals all over the 
country, condemning the ordinary practice of expecting most 
students to get their lessons at home without assistance, and 
giving examples of reforms that had been successfully carried 
out in various places. The article contained an editorial sug- 
gestion to parents to go on a strike and refuse to have any 
further studying done at home by their children. 

One contributor reported the following incident which bore 
the headline, '' The widow who was dead right " • 

' A widow came to the superintendent of schools with the follow- 
ing complaint: " I have four little girls attending your schools. I 
am up at five o'clock in the morning to get them off to school and 
to get myself off to work. It is six o'clock in the evening when I 
reach home again, pretty well worn out, and after we have had 
dinner and have tidied up the house a bit, it is eight o'clock. Then, 
tired as I am, I sit down and teach the little girls the lessons your 
teachers will hear them say over on the following day. Now, if it 
is all the same to you, it would be a great help and favor to me if 
you will have your teachers teach the lessons during the day, and 
then all I would have to do at night would be to hear them say 
them over." 

Teachers fail to appreciate students' difficulties in studying. 

— Some teachers overlook altogether the fact that many stu- 
dents have great difficulty in mastering their lessons unaided. 
This may be due to the fact that these teachers were fairly 
bright students when in high school ; or they may have for- 
gotten their own difficulties and are not in a situation where 
they observe mediocre or poor students studying at home. 
Even quite bright students sometimes have difficulties in 
getting their lessons, particularly in the first year of high 



394 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

school. For example, the honor graduate of a fairly large 
high school reported that during her first year in high school 
she nearly always sought assistance from her former eighth- 
grade teacher, and she would have continued to do so later, 
hut the lessons were too difficult for the teacher. 

Even carefid assignments do not always aid pooi^ students. 
— -The general situation is illustrated further by Breslich, 
who says : 

It is true that the better teachers give careful suggestions with 
each assignment as to method of attack, aim, and meaning of the 
assignment. Usually this enables the better pupil to do the work 
without undue difficulty, but it does not help the slow pupil who 
fails to make the connection between the assignment and the sug- 
gestions given by the teacher. 

That in beginning classes of the high school suggestions given 
with the lesson are not sufficient to enable the pupil to do his work, 
and that the pupil's difficulty in studying his lesson is much greater 
than is usually assumed, is illustrated by the following occurrence : 
The parents of a pupil just beginning first-year mathematics in the 
University of Chicago High School complained to the teacher that 
the daughter came home day after day with home work assigned 
but with no idea how to do it. The girl had told them it was the 
teacher's custom to assign problems with no suggestions. Feeling 
that this procedure was unreasonable, the parents spent the evening 
hours working the problems and explaining them to the child. When 
they were unable themselves to do the work, they called on a minis- 
terial friend living in the next block, who was good in mathematics 
and kind enough to help. Plnally the parents came to the teacher 
and complained : " Sometimes even all of us cannot do the work 
you assign ; how do you expect her to do it alone ? " The teacher 
was surprised to learn that, after all the careful preparation in the 
classroom, a pupil, no matter how slow, should not even know that 
suggestions were given. Asked whether any suggestions for the 
next day's lesson were given, the girl said she knew of none. To 
satisfy the parents, the teacher took a quarter of an hour to go 
over the preparation of the lesson with the parents and daughter 
exactly as had been done in the classroom. It was found that the 



SUPERVISED STUDY 395 

girl remembered it all but failed to see how it would help her to 
study her lesson. It was now the parents' turn to be surprised. 
They went away feeling that the child, not the teacher, was at 
fault. But this experience shows clearly that the teacher's method 
of instruction did not accomplish the desired results, for at any 
rate this pupil had failed to make the connection between sugges- 
tions and assignment. (1 : 44-45 ; 2 : 505) 

Home environment often interferes zvith studying. — If 
such results are found in high-grade homes, with plenty of 
room and furniture, good light, and parents who have suffi- 
cient leisure and interest to concern themselves about the 
lessons of their children, it is obvious that worse results might 
be expected from less favored homes where the conditions 
for studying are often very poor. That this contrast is not 
a matter of theory but is an actual condition is shown by an 
investigation made by W. C. Reavis and entitled '' Factors 
that Determine the Habits of Study of Grade Pupils." 
(8: 71-81.) In reporting the results of the investigation 
the author says : 

The investigation covered the home conditions of three hundred 
and ninety-three children. Data about these homes were gathered 
and graded according to the following points : Educational interest 
on the part of the parents ; means to provide adequate food, cloth- 
ing, medical attention, books, papers, magazines, and entertain- 
ment ; moral atmosphere that w^ould encourage honest}^, earnest 
effort, regard for the rights of others, and a due measure of self- 
respect. The homes were divided into three equal [groups] and 
designated as ranks I, II, and III. 

The pupils also were classified, from the standpoint of 
habits of study, into three grades, or qualities. Then the 
pupils from homes of different ranks were compared from the 
standpoint of their habits of study, and the following table 
was secured. The percentages are calculated on the vertical 
distribution, hence the columns should be read vertically. 



39^ 



TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 





I. Students from 


II. Students FROM 


III. Students from 




Homes of First 


Homes of Second 


Homes of Third 




Rank 


Rank 


Rank 


Students having habits 








of study of first, or 








best, quality . . . 


75% 


32.4% 


15-3% 


Students having habits 








of study of second 








quahty 


197% 


48.2% 


40.7% 


Students having habits 








of study of third, or 








poorest, quality . . 


5-3% 


194% 


44% 


Total 


100% 


100% 


100% 



This table shows clearly that students from the less favored 
homes have the poorer habits of study. Furthermore, the stu- 
dents from the less favored homes tend to neglect the prepa- 
ration of their lessons at home more than do those from the 
better class of homes, as shown by Reavis in the following 
table. The percentages are calculated on the horizontal dis- 
tribution, hence the columns should be read horizontally. 



Distribution of students 
doing assigned home 
study 

Distribution of students 
not doing assigned 
home study . . 



I. From Homes 
of First Rank 



38.5% 



4-1% 



II. From Homes 
of Second Rank 



54-2% 



43-8% 



III. From Homes 
OF Third Rank 



52-1% 



Discursive influences even in /avoided homes. — Even 
when the home environments are of fairly good grade, and 
the students able to master the lessons unaided, the activity 
of studying must compete with many other tendencies and 
with distractions that result in divided attention and conse- 
quent waste of time and energy. 



SUPERVISED STUDY 397 

The conditions for home study present all the possible varia- 
tions, but most home study must be done under discursive influ- 
ences — a little study, a little conversation about irrelevant matter, 
an intermittent discontinuance for small household duties, a pro- 
longed intermission for recreation, with the half-consciousness of 
wrongdoing because of unfinished and overhanging lessons, even 
interrupted sleep because of a number of unfinished tasks, a final 
effort to secure categorically such facts regarding the assignment 
as are essential to enable the pupil to meet the teacher, a con- 
sciousness of incompleteness of preparation and a hope that, if 
called upon at all, the call may come for the facts that are in the 
pupil's meager store. (3 : 245) 

Measured results show superiority of supervised study. — 

To determine by exact measurement the relative efficiency 
of the home-study system and supervised study in school, 
Breslich conducted an experiment in teaching algebra to two 
parallel classes of approximately equal ability. In one class 
he abolished home study altogether but used part of the reci- 
tation period for supervised study. The other class had home 
study and used the class period for ordinary recitation pur- 
poses. The classes may be distinguished by designating the 
former as the supervised-study class and the latter as the 
home-study class. The supervised-study class spent only 
the regular class period upon each lesson, namely, forty-five 
minutes ; it had no outside study. The home-study class 
spent on the average two hours, or one hundred and twenty 
minutes, on each lesson. This was composed of forty-five 
minutes of class recitation and an average of seventy-five min- 
utes of home study. Thus the home-study class devoted on 
the averasfe two and one half times as much time to each 
lesson as the supervised-study class did. In spite of this 
enormous difference in the amount of time spent by the 
two classes, the supervised-study class averaged as well in 
the examination on the chapter covered in the experiment 
as did the home-study class. 



398 



TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 



The details of Breslich's experiment, as well as the accom- 
panying discussion, should be studied by all readers in the 
School Review for October, 191 2. The following additional 
points may be given here. The equal ability of the two 
classes was shown by their grades in the examination at the 
end of the preceding semester. The average of these grades 
for the supervised-study class was 79.4 ; for the home-study 
class it was 81.4 ; and the distribution of A's, B's, etc. was 
approximately the same. The experiment included fourteen 
lessons on the chapter on simultaneous linear equations. The 
grades made in the examination on the chapter are shown 
in the following table: 



c 



D 



Average 



Supervised-study section. No 
home work 

Home-work section. No su- 
pervised study . . . . 



0% 



7-1% 



6.2% 



'7T (^ 



21.4% 



31-2% 
50% 



65-5% 
62.8% 



Thus it will be seen that, although slightly inferior accord- 
ing to the preceding semester averages, the supervised-study 
class was able to do slightly better on the average in the ex- 
periment than did the home-study class which put in two and 
one half times as much time. 

Poor students profit from supervised study, good students 
from home study. — Although the supervised-study class did 
as well on the average, nevertheless the brighter students 
in the home-study class did much better than the brighter 
students in the supervised-study class. This is shown by 
the fact that only 6.2 per cent of A's and B's were made by 
the students in the supervised-study class as compared with 
28.5 per cent of A's and B's made by the student's in the 
home-study class. These facts show that the capable students 
profited from unsupervised study and, as a result of the added 
time spent in home study, mastered more thoroughly the type 



SUPERVISED STUDY 399 

of problems that were being studied. On the other hand, the 
fact that the averages of the two classes were practically the 
same in the experiment is explained by the fact that 50 per 
cent of the home-study class received below D, while only 
31.2 per cent of the supervised study class received below D. 
This shows either that poor students profit very little by unsu- 
pervised study or that they neglect to do their home study. 
Probably both factors enter in. 

Poor shidents often fail to do home stitdy. — Some light 
is thrown on the influence of these two factors by the figures 
given by Reavis for a first-year Latin class. (7: 398-405.) 
In its habits of study this class would be quite similar to 
Breslich's classes. Reavis secured statements showing the 
average amount of time spent in home study by each student, 
and compared these with the term grades of the students in 
Latin. The grading system in use included the letters A-|-, 
A, B+, B, C+, C, and X, C meant '' conditioned " and X 
meant "failure." The following chart shows the relation 
between the amount of home study and rank in this class. 

Chart showing Grades made by Students who spent Various 
Amounts of Time on Home Study 



X 






X 


c 




X 


C-H B 


C + 


X 


C-t- B 


B 


X 


C-f B 


B + 


c 


B B + 


A 



c 

C+ B-f B-H A C 
A B+ A A+ B 

A-h A+ A+ A-f B-h 
A-H A+ A+ A-h B-H C + 
Hours spent on home study o \ \ \\ 2. 2.\ 

The first column shows the term grades of the students 
who put in no time on home study. It may be read as follows : 
Of the ten students who put in no time on home study five 



400 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

were failures (grade = X), one was conditioned (grade = C), 
one barely passed (grade = C +), and three made excellent 
records (grades = A + and A), but according to Reavis these 
three were repeating the course. These facts suggest that 
the large number of failures in Breslich's home-study class 
was partly due to the lack of study. On the other hand, the 
right-hand side of Reavis 's table shows that students may 
put in considerable time on home study and still do poor 
work ; for example, the one student who put in two and a 
half hours barely passed (grade = C +), and two students 
who put in two hours were conditioned (grade = C). 

Further measjcrements of superiority of supervised study. 
— Another experiment to determine by accurate measurement 
the value of supervised study was conducted by J. H. Minnich 
with two classes in mathematics of approximately equal ability. 
Each class had outside study. In one case the studying was 
done at home and in the other the pupils studied under 
supervision during daily periods in school. The class study- 
ing under supervision averaged considerably better than the 
home-study class. To determine the cause of this difference 
the achievements of the bright and the poor pupils should be 
compared, as was done in the case of Breslich's study. The 
reader should study Minnich 's entire article in the School 
Reviezv for December, 191 3. 

Although further measurements are needed to determine 
the exact nature of the superiority of supervised study, the 
results available to date indicate that in the case of the poor 
students much better results are achieved by a combination 
of supervised study and recitations in school than by the 
common system of recitations based on unsupervised study 
at home or in school. 

Introduce supervised study gradually in order to master 
its technique. — Supervised study has been introduced into 
high schools in varying degrees. As a mild beginning, 
study periods after school hours are sometimes offered by 



SUPERVISED STUDY 401 

conscientious teachers, and attendance invited but not re- 
quired. Such a period usually does good as far as it reaches 
the pupils. Sometimes it is made more influential by requir- 
ing those students to attend who are falling behind in their 
lessons or making poor records. Sometimes one regular 
period a week in each subject is made a supervised-study 
period. All of these are steps in the right direction and 
probably constitute the best method of introducing supervised 
study in order that teachers may gradually learn something 
about its possibilities and the technique of conducting it, for 
a special technique is needed and will be discussed later in 
the chapter. 

Best form is the Batavia plan of required periods. — After 
some preliminary experimenting has been carried out in any 
system or school with supervised study, however, it should 
be introduced on a large scale, and the best way of doing 
this in high school is to adopt some modified form of the 
Batavia plan. As noted in the preceding chapter, the essen- 
tial idea in the Batavia scheme is the placing of a number of 
required supervised-study periods in the daily program and 
requiring the teacher to use them for directing pupils who 
are studying silently at their desks. This scheme was organ- 
ized by Superintendent J. Kennedy in Batavia, New York, 
about 1898. At first it was simply a device to enable the 
school system to use some very large rooms in certain ele- 
mentary schools by filling them with children and putting 
two teachers in a room, one to hear recitations and the other 
to supervise the children who were studying. The results 
were so gratifying in bringing the backward children up to 
grade and almost entirely eliminating failures that the plan 
was extended to apply to rooms that had only one teacher. 
"This was accomplished simply by making supervised study a 
regular part of the daily program. In the Elemejttary School 
Teacher for June, 191 2, Mr. Kennedy describes the very 
favorable results of fourteen years' experience with the plan. 



402 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

Divided periods provide for 7'eqidred supervised study in 
high schools. — The simplest way of adapting the Batavia 
plan to high-school instruction is to introduce divided periods 
and require every teacher in the subjects in which recitations 
are ordinarily conducted to use half of the period (or a certain 
prescribed part of it) for supervised study. It is necessary 
to make this a requirement, because many teachers will insist 
on using the whole period for recitation purposes unless the 
supervised study is required. In Joliet, Illinois, supervised 
study has been organized on this basis for classes in mathe- 
matics and foreign language and probably by this time in 
other subjects. Concerning it Superintendent Brown writes 
as follows : 

The plan means that two periods of forty minutes each are set 
aside for first- and second-year classes. One of these periods is 
devoted to recitation work. The second period, which immediately 
follows the first, with an intermission of a minute or two, is given 
up to supervised study. (1 : 59) 

Wiener reports very satisfactory results secured by using 
a divided period of sixty minutes in the Manual-Training 
High School of Newark, New Jersey. (9 : 526-531.) Such 
reports are typical of the organization of supervised study 
in many high schools in the country. 

Special technique of supervising study. Avoid extremes of 
too miich assistance and of vague exhortation. — As stated 
above, a special technique of supervising study needs to be 
understood and used by teachers if the results are to be satis- 
factory. The chief danger to be avoided is that of assisting 
pupils too much, thus doing their work for them instead of 
arranging conditions so that they will do it. At the opposite 
extreme is the tendency to talk learnedly about concentration 
of attention, and to expect to secure this desirable condition 
on the part of the students by demanding it of them. But, as 
we noted above (p. 342), the endeavor to secure concentration 



SUPERVISED STUDY 



403 



by a mere '' heave of the will " is relatively ineffective, since, 
at the outset, it usually establishes merely a condition of 
divided attention that is relatively unfavorable to studying. 
What is needed is a clear understanding of the conditions 
upon which favorable attitudes of concentration of attention 
depend, "and intelligent endeavor by teachers to establish 
these conditions. Hence, in taking up the discussion of the 



PUPIL'S STUDY PROGRAM 
Name Grade 


Hour 


Study 


Recite 


9.00 






945 






10.30 






II. 10 






1. 15 






2.00 






245 






3.20 






















(Over) 





technique of supervised study we shall relate it to the con- 
ditions determining the concentration of attention. 

Physical conditions should suggest study. A study-program 
card improves sttidyiiig. — The influence of physical condi- 
tions in determining concentration of attention is the first 
point that we shall consider. By physical conditions we mean 
all kinds of routine mechanical arrangements that can be made 
in order to put students in a situation in which all of the 
suggestions are in the direction of concentration of attention 
along the desired lines. The grade teacher's orders to ''put 



404 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

everything away " is the most obvious endeavor to eliminate 
conditions which suggest attention in undesirable directions. 
In general, the suggestions of the physical situation in school 
ought to be much more favorable to study than those of the 
home situation. The suggestions of the school situation can 
be greatly strengthened, however, • if the teacher makes it a 
point to do so. This is illustrated by Reavis's experiment 
with cards upon which each student made out a definite 
program of study for the term. The form of one side of the 
card is shown on page 403. (7: 400.) The student indicated 
the subject that he was to study at each period that he was 
in the study room. " Duplicate copies were placed on file 
in the assembly-room desk, so that the teacher in charge 
could closely supervise the work." Reavis records the influ- 
ence of the study-program card in the following statement : 

During the two and a half years that study has been closely 
supervised and regular programs for each pupil strictly followed, 
three things have been accomplished with more or less success : 
(i) the problem of discipline has been practically solved; (2) con- 
siderable improvement has been made in scholarship ; (3) regular 
hours of home study have been provided for by the large majority 
of the students. (7 : 399) 

Reavis gives measured evidence for these statements. To 
be sure, these results are only partially due to the influence 
of the card as an improvement in the physical situation, but 
its influence in this way is very important. That is, once the 
program card is made out, it becomes just as much a part of 
the physical situation as the clock or the bell or the teacher, 
and it operates more or less mechanically as a source of 
suggestions for concentrating attention. 

Students testify to ijifltiejice of cardin improving stndy. — 
As evidence of the value of the study cards Reavis gives the 
following testimony from students who used them for two and 
a half years. 



SUPERVISED STUDY 405 

T. By following a definite program of study I have formed the 
habit of studying a certain lesson at a certain time, and because I 
know that I must study at that time I am always ready. 

2. If a definite program is followed, I can do more and better 
work than if I study in a haphazard fashion. 

3. When following a study program one is never in doubt about 
what to do next. 

4. A study program keeps me from spending too much time 
on favorite subjects. 

5. By following a regular program I waste no time in thinking 
about what I shall do next. Then, too, it keeps me from changing 
tasks when I begin to tire of what I am doing. 

6. By preparing my work regularly I find that I not only have 
better lessons but also have more time for leisure. 

7. The study program has proved so beneficial to me in the 
preparation of my lessons that I now follow a regular program for 
all of my work. 

8. I find that by following a regular program of study I always 
study each lesson, whether I accomplish anything or not. At least 
I always know something about each lesson. 

9. I had the habit of always putting off my work until I felt just 
right for study, and as a result made very poor grades, but since 
I have adopted a regular study program my interest in my work 
has greatly increased and I am no longer ashamed of my grades. 
(7: 404-405) 

Thus we see that a study program may be one of the most 
important aspects of the physical situation, serving as a source 
of suggestions for the concentration of attention in the right 
direction at stated periods. 

Form habits of going through the motions of studying. — 
A second general class of conditions determining concentra- 
tion of attention includes certain more or less mechanical 
habitual processes which the student may develop. They 
involve '' going through the motions " of giving attention or 
getting ready to give attention. An example has already been 
given (on page 358) of the way students settle down to work 



4o6 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

under different teachers. Improvements in habits of study 
may be made along this hne. The need of them is shown 
by Breshch's statement of the conditions observed at one 
stage of his investigation after the experience with the girl 
who didn't understand suggestions, as described on page 394. 
Breslich says : 

To ascertain to what extent the other members of the class 
might have this difficulty, the following experiment was tried : In 
assigning the next lesson, suggestions were given with unusual care. 
The pupils were then told that the next fifteen minutes would be 
given to studying the lesson, and that they should begin the assigned 
home work immediately. The experiment showed at once that the 
pupils did not appreciate the value of limited time, for all were slow 
in beginning work. It took some of them the whole fifteen minutes 
to go through the technique of getting started. Several evidently 
were not in the habit of working alone, for they looked about help- 
lessly and simply imitated the others. However, these same pupils 
had come to the classroom daily with the lessons well prepared. 
Very little was accomplished in the fifteen minutes, indicating that 
the pupils very probably wasted much time in studying their assign- 
ments of home work. Although the class had been in the high 
school only a short time, the teacher had been presupposing a habit 
of study which did not exist. Much of the difficulty is due to lack 
of knowledge as to how to study and how to use time to advan- 
tage. The remedy in this case is, of course, definite instruction as 
to methods of study. (1 : 45, 2 : 506) 

Exmnple of an individual making his own surroundings 
favorable. — Students can easily be trained to go through 
the motions of getting ready to study. Either in school or 
at home they can be taught to apply the idea of putting dis- 
tracting objects out of sight and arranging materials for the 
present task. This habit in the student corresponds to the 
teacher's activity in arranging the physical situation. Many 
adults apply this principle of '' going through the motions " 
by arranging favorable physical situations in their own work. 



SUPERVISED STUDY 407 

Thus, in my office much of my work is carried on under con- 
ditions that involve rapid shifting of attention ; for example, 
during a conference with a student I may have to answer the 
telephone two or three times, give directions to clerks who 
come in with questions, and perhaps make memoranda on 
another case which flits through my mind while the student 
is slowly presenting his or is trying to choose between cer- 
tain alternatives which we have been discussing. Obviously, 
such a situation is not favorable to prolonged economical atten- 
tion to one matter ; hence, if I have some long statistical cal- 
culations to make, or am puzzling out the organization of the 
work in a department, or working out the program for a faculty 
meeting, I always go to another room and use a desk on which 
there is no other work of my own and where I shall probably 
not be approached about other matters. Similarly, at home 
my regular desk is piled with distracting material related to 
the teaching of my classes. Consequently, when I want to 
write on a chapter or article with greatest economy of atten- 
tion, I commonly use the dining-room table or any other table 
that I can get. Upon it are piled only materials that are con- 
ducive to attention to the work in hand. Moreover, it is pos- 
sible to acquire ideas or habits of arranging these in detail so 
as to make for economy in attention. For example, sources 
that are to be consulted may be piled in the order in which 
they are to be used ; a used page of the outline which is 
being followed may be put at the bottom of the pile of out- 
line pages ; finished pages of the manuscript may be piled 
so that they will be in order (this usually involves putting 
them face downward but placing the last finished sheet so 
that it can be referred back to at a glance). 

Outlining is a useful form of going throtcgh the fitotiojis. 
— The practice of making an outline on paper is another 
habit of going through the motions that helps in securing 
attention in studying. For example, in beginning this chapter 
about half past seven one evening I was possessed with the 



4o8 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

idea of going to a neighboring minstrel show. I couldn't 
get the thoughts of the singing and eccentric dancing perma- 
nently out of my mind. But I also wanted to get to work on 
the chapter. So, at a favorable moment, when the thought 
'' write the chapter " was dominant, I started to make the 
appropriate motions by jotting down some headings in the 
outline. The thought ''go to the show " kept coming back, 
but the outlining motions helped to inhibit it. Suddenly it 
occurred to me to look at my watch, and it was nine o'clock, 
too late to go, and I had made considerable progress in 
thinking out the chapter. Similarly, students will find that 
the outlining of assigned readings will serve as an important 
mechanical aid to attention. Its utility from the standpoint 
of clear thinking will be referred to later. 

Form habits of disregarding routine distractions. — Another 
idea or habit that can be acquired, and that is more or less 
mechanical in its operation, is that of disregarding distrac- 
tions, as discussed above on page 359. The specific reactions 
of '' keeping the eyes on the book," '' finishing this sentence 
before looking up," etc. can be consciously practiced at first 
and later become more or less automatic. They will probably 
not work when perfectly novel distracting stimuli appear, but 
they will help in a great many cases, since the distracting con- 
ditions tend to fall into certain classes, such as '' boy sharpen- 
ing a pencil," ''ruler falHng on the floor," "boy wanting to 
borrow some paper," "teacher pushing back his chair," 
" teacher opening a window," " teacher reproving inattentive 
pupil," etc. Ideas and habits of disregarding each class of 
distractions can easily be acquired. To be sure, the distract- 
ing stimulus may be noticed, thus producing divided attention 
for a moment, but the retention of the physical attitude of at- 
tention to the work in hand almost immediately shuts out the 
distraction. In some classes, as noted above, routine distract- 
ing conditions do not even produce divided attention ; they 
pass entirely unnoticed. 



SUPERVISED STUDY 409 

Thus we see that '' learning how to study " and " forming 
habits of study " may be aided by certain purely mechanical 
arrangements and routine habits, such as a study program 
and habits of ''going through the motions" of studying. 
These devices are helpful in studying because they are helpful 
in directing attention to the work in hand. 

Concentrated studying, however, must be secured through 
interest. — But effective studying involves more than merely 
'' going through the motions " ; it involves also concentra- 
tion of attention upon the contents of the material to be 
studied. The general basis of such concentration was shown, 
in Chapter XIV, to be certain instinctive or habitual inter- 
ests. We need to know how the instincts of mental activity, 
curiosity, collecting, manipulation, communication, and co- 
operation can be made effective during silent study. The 
discussion of the general application of these, given on 
pages 344-358, will probably suffice to suggest their specific 
application to studying. The same may be said about the 
habitual interests discussed on pages 358-361. 

Reviezv conditions favorable to learning discussed in pre- 
ceding chapters. — There are also certain specific bases for 
interest or concentration of attention in connection with each 
type of learning, and consequently in connection with study- 
ing or practicing along each line. These have been discussed 
to a certain extent in the chapters on learning ; hence it would 
serve as a useful review for the reader to read over again 
from the present standpoint the material presented there. 
For example, secure an answer to the question. What are 
the mental conditions favorable to concentration of attention 
in motor practice and in memorizing, and how are these con- 
ditions best secured during periods of individual practice or 
study.? The same question should be answered for reflective 
thinking, for habits of enjoyment, and for expression. The 
answers can be worked out on the basis of the chapters 
upon • learning, self -activity, apperception, and interests. 



4IO TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

Scan assignments to find points of interest. — Special note 
may be made of the following points : A helpful device 
in some cases is the practice of skimming, or scanning, 
new assignments in order to run across some point that se- 
cures spontaneous interest. If a book or chapter is well con- 
structed, the first part should be the most important part to 
attack first in order to imderstand it ; but there is a difference 
between securing understanding and securing spontaneous 
attention. An interesting illustration with which an author 
would not think of beginning his chapter might be found on 
the third page and arouse spontaneous interest in the related 
discussion. Sometimes the opening paragraphs are so poorly 
written, owing to the difficulty that the author has experienced 
in getting the swing in his writing, that they are the most 
uninteresting and unattractive parts of the discussion. This 
fact is illustrated by the following example given by Adams. 

An experienced editor, in engaging a brilliant young man to 
assist him in preparing for the press manuscripts that had been 
accepted for his magazine, gave this advice : " In many cases, par- 
ticularly with essays, you will find it a good plan to cut out the 
first paragraph. The author gets down to business in the second. 
You will, of course, be prepared to have all the authors complain 
that the first paragraph is the best in the essay, the fact being that 
they have given so much time and care to the beginning that they 
have lost all sense of its true value." (10 : 178) 

Hence, as a device to assist him in getting interested in 
studying some assignments, the student may wisely omit the 
introduction until it becomes of interest in relation to later 
material which has aroused spontaneous interest. 

Otctline is an aid to reflective mastery of an assignment. 
— Another point that may be reviewed here for emphasis 
is the making of outlines, or briefs, of assignments that are 
being studied in various content subjects. This practice has 
already been mentioned on page 407 as a mechanical aid to 



SUPERVISED STUDY- 411 

attention. It was also discussed at length on pages 280-281 
as the basis of clear thinking preparatory to expression. It 
serves a similar purpose in securing a reflective analysis and 
clear understanding of an assignment that is being read. If 
such assignments are to be recited upon, the outline, or brief, 
serves the double purpose of being an aid in studying and an 
aid in expression. 

Principles of chapter on reflective thinking given special 
application. — Finally, special attention may be called to the 
discussion in the chapter on reflective thinking (pp. 171, 
203), where the point was made that books may be so con- 
structed as to require and stimulate reasoning. In applying 
the principles of reflective thinking to the study of assign- 
ments in books, teachers should make it clear to students 
that it is this reflective mastery, and not merely verbal 
memorizing, that is desired. 

Routinized directions to students to assist in studying. — 
A practical illustration of how some of these points may be 
brought to the attention of students in a routine way is found 
in the directions printed upon Reavis's study-program card, 
which was described in part above on page 403. These 
directions, which appear on the back of each student's card, 
are given below with a slight change in the numbering. 

DIRECTIONS FOR STUDY 

1. Follow your program regularly. 

2. If possible, study your lesson immediately after the assign- 
ment is made. 

3. Take brief notes and afterwards restudy by outline. 

4. Use dictionary and reference books for points not clearly 
comprehended. 

5. Concentrate your mind so that outside interests will not fre- 
quently disturb your study. 

6. Do not try to commit exact words until you understand 
their content. 



412 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

7. Connect the important facts of the new lesson with facts 
previously learned. 

8. Make comparisons and contrasts when possible. 

9. Carefully review and think over the previous lesson before 
beginning the next. 

10. The extra effort spent on preparation pays the greatest 
intellectual dividends. (7 : 400) ' ■ 

Special technique to be used by teacher in supervision. — 

The final point to be considered in connection with super- 
vised study is the technique to be used by the teacher v^hile 
passing around the room and giving suggestion to or asking 
questions of individual pupils. 

Must get insight into ptipiVs thinking; objective evidence 
desirable. — In order that the teacher may be able to suggest 
and question intelligently, it is necessary for him to be able 
to get some notion of the thinking which the student is doing 
or has been doing. This is easily done in mathematics, since 
the student puts the operations down on paper to a consider- 
able extent ; hence the teacher can usually tell at a glance 
what progress or mistakes he is making. In some other sub- 
jects there are definite exercises to be worked, resulting in 
objective answers, as in grammatical work in a foreign lan- 
guage, and in problems in physics and chemistry. In the 
writing of the briefs of compositions the teacher can also get 
some idea of the pupil's progress by the objective results he 
has produced. In some other subjects, however, such as his- 
tory, it would be necessary to make special provision for such 
objective products of studying. As a step in this direction, 
G. E. Rickard, who has been investigating the problem of 
organizing supervised study in history, summarizes the spe- 
cific aims of history instruction as follows : 

A. To develop the pupiVs ability to answer questions based on 

1 . Acquisition of the proper concepts of new and technical terms. 

2. Mastery of the subject matter of the text. 

3. Interpretation of source material. 



SUPERVISED STUDY 413 

4. Abstracting collateral reading and connecting it with the out- 
line of the text. 

B. To develop the pupiVs ability to act by 

1. Arranging logical outlines and abstracts of the subject matter 
of the text. 

2. Arranging tabulations of time sequences of events and persons, 
grouped according to some convenient unit, as decades or centuries. 

3. Drawing maps which shall more or less closely approximate 
some ideal which the instructor has previously analyzed into its 
elements. 

4. Collecting material on a given topic, organizing it logically, 
citing references, and preparing bibliographies. 

Such a definite tabulation of the specific aims to be 
achieved in the studying of a subject like history is the 
first step in the direction of getting some objective basis for 
determining the progress that the student is making while 
he is studying. Obviously, many of the aims cited above in- 
volve definite objective results in the form of maps or out- 
lines, while others, such as the interpretation of sources, 
might easily be made to involve the writing of brief answers 
to definite questions, if the assignments are as definitely and 
skillfully worked out as those cited above on pages 174-176. 

Sometimes, if the teacher cannot determine what progress 
the student is making by simply looking over the latter's 
shoulder, he can ask the student questions that will serve the 
purpose. Moreover, if properly restricted, students may be 
permitted to ask questions in order to clear up difficulties. 

Skilled qjiestioning to avoid assisting too nitLch. — After 
the teacher has determined what progress the student is 
making, the next point is to devise questions and sugges- 
tions which, without assisting him too much, will keep him 
thinking and progressing. This requires the finest art on 
the part of the teacher and is the point at which many fail 
in conducting supervised study and in other kinds of teach- 
ing as well. The teacher should not only endeavor to avoid 



414 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

too much direct assistance, but must also avoid the opposite 
practice ; namely, long-winded, roundabout, Socratic question- 
ing. At first an inexperienced teacher will have great dif- 
ficulty in achieving a success in the type of supervision 
suggested here, but as he becomes well informed concerning 
the specific difficulties encountered by students in specific 
types of problems and other assignments, and as he gains 
some skill in questioning, he will be able to see at a glance 
what the student's difficulties are and, by one or two well- 
worded questions, to start him thinking in the right direction. 
Sometimes during the period of supervised study a brief 
period of class discussion of difficulties may be desirable. 
Hence Breslich says : 

It becomes evident frequently that a great many pupils make 
the same mistake or encounter the same difficulty. This may indi- 
cate either that the mistake is a fundamental one — one that cannot 
be avoided under the best method of instruction — or that the in- 
struction was not as efficient as had been supposed by the teacher. 
Very often the teacher learns that he has not realized how different 
his method of presentation is from the method of study of the 
pupils. In such cases the class is asked to stop working. The 
mistake or difficulty is thoroughly discussed, and work is then 
resumed where it was left off. (2 : 514) 

Examples of large improvement from slight assistance. — 
The favorable results of such suggestions in aiding students 
who are having difficulties is illustrated by Breslich 's account 
of the work of three students in his supervised-study class. 
He says : 

The section under supervision worked with more confidence and 
pleasure. This was especially true of the slow pupils. A girl who 
had failed during the first semester and was in the class on condi- 
tion made a grade of 78 in the test on this chapter. Her grade 
in the final examination at the end of the first semester had been 
only 40. A boy who barely received a passing grade at the end 
of the first semester, and who at first seemed to be unable to do 



SUPERVISED STUDY 415 

anything under supervision, suddenly found that with a little greater 
effort he could do as well as his classmates. There was an immedi- 
ate improvement, and one day, when a speed test was given, he 
surprised everybody, even himself, by leading the class. A girl 
returning after a week's illness, and still in a weakened condition, 
said she " could not understand anything that was said," and felt 
greatly discouraged. By giving her a little more attention than the 
other pupils she was enabled to do the work before the end of the 
recitation, and had no further difficulty. Under the common system 
of instruction very little attention is paid to such cases. The teacher 
usually allows a certain amount of time in which the pupil must 
'' catch up." Very often, in addition to the difficulties found in 
understanding the class work, " back work " is assigned. The in- 
justice of all this at times drives some pupils to use dishonest 
means of getting possession of this required work. (1 : 63, 2: 510) 

The suggestions need not be restricted to intellectual diffi- 
culties, but may relate to improvement in the form of the 
work, neatness, more economical methods of procedure, etc. 
In the case of bright students who readily complete the work 
required of all, supplementary assignments can be made when 
needed ; that is, if they have not already been made for an 
extended period or in the general assignment. 

Supervised study on new topic shotdd precede home study. 
— An important rule laid down by Breslich is that assignments 
of work on a new topic should always be made in such a way 
as to enable pupils to spend some time studying the topic in 
school under supervision before having assigned home work. 
Concerning the relation of this practice to home work he says : 

Teachers should take a new attitude toward home work. They 
should break themselves of the habit of prescribing the regulation 
amount of home work daily. Pupils cannot be expected to prepare 
lessons well unless they know definitely what is expected of them. 
Rather than assign a lesson of doubtful difficulty and receive lessons 
poorly and dishonestly prepared, they may omit the home assign- 
ment altogether. Home work should have the character of com- 
pleting the class work of the previous day, not of preparing for 



4i6 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

the next. This will enable even the slow pupil to apply his time 
to it with success and profit. Let the pupil struggle with really 
new work under the supervision of the teacher, but let home work 
be preceded by enough similar work in the classroom to furnish a 
pupil a clew to prevent his working in the dark. With this new role 
assigned to home work a change in class methods should follow. 

The time ordinarily used for recitation should be shortened or 
omitted altogether. The time gained can then be used for super- 
vised study and for the development of new work. (1 : 70) 

General spirit of school improved by supervised study. — 

Finally it may be noted that the system of supervised study 
introduces a much better general spirit for both pupils and 
teacher than is secured by the ordinary plan of recitations 
based on home study. As suggested in the beginning of the 
chapter, upon the latter plan the teacher is primarily a de- 
tective at work to determine how well students have per- 
formed, out of school, tasks which have been assigned them. 
Upon the supervised-study basis the teacher is primarily one 
who assists students in school to make progress in their studies. 
Nearly all the articles referred to in the bibliography at the 
end of the chapter give testimony to large improvement in 
discipline and decrease in nervous strain and fatigue as results 
of the introduction of supervised study on a large scale. 

Conclusion of discussion of supervised study. — This will 
conclude our chapter upon one of the most important reforms 
in instruction that is taking place at the present time. We 
showed that the introduction of supervised study on a large 
scale is necessary to avoid the large waste of time, energy, 
and community money that commonly results from the poor 
or unfortunate students' failing to carry on effective study at 
home. Experimental investigations were reported which show 
that poor students learn much more effectively under super- 
vised study. The conditions favorable to study were discussed 
and shown to consist of certain physical conditions and routine 
habits which may easily be provided, plus arrangements to 



SUPERVISED STUDY 417 

secure spontaneous interest and concentrated attentive think- 
ing. The latter are much more difficult to secure and necessi- 
tate special procedure in connection with each type of learning. 
Finally, the teacher's technique in using suggestive super- 
vision without too much assisting was described and the gen- 
eral point noted that supervised study upon a new topic should 
always precede home study upon the topic. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES 

1. Breslich, E. R. Supervised Study as a Means of providing 
Supplementary Individual Instruction. Thirteenth Yearbook of the Na- 
tional Society for the Study of Education. (The University of Chicago 
Press, 1 914.) Pp. 32-72. The most complete survey and summary. 

2. Breslich, E. R. Teaching High-School Pupils how to Study. 
School Review., October, 191 2, Vol. XX, pp. 505-515. Report of ex- 
periments with algebra classes, together with discussion of technique. 

3. Caldwell, O. W. The Laboratory Method and High-School 
Efficiency. Popular Science Monthly., March, 191 3, Vol. LXXII, 
pp. 243-251. 

4. Kennedy, J. The Batavia Plan after Fourteen Years of Trial. 
Elementary School Teacher., June, 191 2, Vol. XII, pp. 449-459. 

5. Ladies' Home fournal., January, 191 3. Popular protest against 
home study. 

6. MiNNiCH, J. H. An Experiment in the Supervised Study of 
Mathematics. School Review, December, 191 3, Vol. XXI, pp. 670-675. 
Excellent, precise measurements of efficiency of supervision. Good 
tables and graphs. 

7. Reavis, W. C. Importance of a Study Program for High-School 
Pupils. School Review, June, 191 1, Vol. XIX, pp. 398-405. Sample 
of program card, with directions for improving studying and measured 
results of improvement made. 

8. Reavis, W. C. Factors that determine the Habits of Study in 
Grade Pupils. Ele7nentary School Teacher, October, 1911, Vol. XII, 
pp. 71-81. Measured results show influence of home environment, etc. 

9. Wiener, W. Home-Study Reform. School Review, Vol. XX, 
pp. 526-531. Enthusiastic account of results of using divided sixty- 
minute period, one half for supervised study. 

Referred to incidentally in the chapter. — 10. Adams, J. Exposi- 
tion aitd Illustration in Teaching. (The Macmillan Company, 19 10.) 



CHAPTER XVII 

THE USE OF BOOKS 

Main points of the chapter. — i . The use of books is a most 
important process in social life, and it is the most economical 
means of instruction in school. 

2. Textbook study should be supplemented by other required 
readings and by independent investigations by students upon 
assigned topics. 

3. Great care should be exercised to select textbooks that treat 
subjects intensively in a manner that can be easily understood by 
students. 

4. The recitation period should be used primarily for interpre- 
tative and supplementary discussion, although testing should not 
be neglected. 

5. For required supplementary reading, sufficient duplicate 
copies of a few serviceable books should be available, and exact 
page assignments to these should be made. 

6. Contribution recitations can be effectively organized on the 
basis of such supplementary reading and of more elaborate inde- 
pendent investigations of special topics by individual students. 

7. In such investigations, students should be trained to pursue 
standard bibliographical methods. 

8. The system of oral reports based upon such investigations 
should be standardized and routinized so as to include frequent 
conferences with the instructor, descriptive bibliographies, care- 
fully prepared briefs, and oral reports of varying length adapted 
to the capacities of individual students. 

Principles previously developed to be applied to special 

technique In the discussions which preceded this chapter 

we laid down most of the fundamental principles that should 

\ govern instruction, and from now on we shall be largely 

' 418 



THE USE OF BOOKS 419 

concerned with certain special types of technique to which 
these principles apply. Among the topics which we have con- 
sidered and which should be kept in mind as the background 
of the discussion that is to come are the following : the fun- 
damental aims of education, which are to be conceived in terms 
of economic, civic, and domestic efficiency, good will, and 
harmless enjoyment ; the proximate, or immediate, aims of 
instruction, as health, information, habits, ideals, and abiding 
interests ; the need of economy in the management of all 
endeavor to attain these aims ; the selection and arrangement 
of subject matter so as to adapt it to contemporary social 
needs and to the interests and capacities of the students ; the 
way the learning process is carried on most economically in 
the various types of learning involved in high-school studies ; 
the problem of adapting lessons to the students' past experi- 
ences and present frame of mind in order to secure the 
desired educative responses ; the utilization of students' in- 
stinctive and habitual interests so as to secure economy in 
learning; the arrangements to vary assignments and reci- 
tations so as to adapt instruction to variations in the capacities 
of students ; the supervision and direction of students while 
they are studying, in order to avoid misapplication of effort. 
Four sources of subject matter : books, teacher, past and 
present real experiences. — The next general topic to be con- 
sidered is the special technique of using various possible 
sources of subject matter in accordance with the principles 
outlined above. The most common sources of the subject 
matter of instruction are books. Another source is the teacher, 
especially when the lecture method is used. Other sources 
are the students' real experiences with things and persons in 
school and in the world at large. The laboratory method is 
based on the use of the present real experiences of students, 
while their past real experiences are often especially utilized 
in conversational methods. Thus we may distinguish typical 
sources of subject matter which give four types of method; 



420 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

namely, book methods, lecture methods, laboratory methods, 
and conversational methods. The effective administration of 
these methods involves, for the most part, simply specific appli- 
cation of the principles discussed up to this point ; but in order 
to get the special technique of each method in mind, we shall 
devote a brief chapter to each one except the lecture method, 
which is so seldom used in American high schools that a 
special discussion of it is not needed. 

Reflective reading of books a most important social process. 
— In taking up the consideration of the use of books, the 
first point to get clearly in mind is that the study of books 
and other printed material is not simply a matter that is im- 
portant in schools, but it is one of the chief means of getting 
ideas in social life at large in many fields where the acquisi- 
tion of new ideas plays an important part. It is necessary to 
emphasize this point because, very often, educational reformers, 
in their zealous emphasis on the value of real, first-hand ex- 
periences, seem to overlook the fact that profiting by the 
experiences of others is equally important. The reflective 
reading of books and periodicals constitutes one important 
means of sharing the experiences of others. Hence any 
teacher is neglecting his duty who does not keep thoroughly 
in touch with the developing literature of the subjects he 
teaches, and who fails to keep students at work upon this lit- 
erature and to teach them how to find it and utilize it effec- 
tively. We do not deny the value of shop and laboratory 
training ; these also have their place ; but enthusiasm about 
these should not lead to the neglect of training in the use 
of books and libraries. In every field intelligent, reflective 
reading is increasing in importance with the increase in the 
output of general and specialized books and magazines adapted 
to the rank and file of readers. 

Memorizing ideas from printed material also importa7it 
in practical life, — Moreover, not only is reflective reading 
important, but also reading which is intended to fiiT the ideas 



THE USE OF BOOKS 421 

in the reader's mind. The importance of reading to remember, 
that is, the memorizing of ideas, is overlooked by many radi- 
cal educational reformers. Very often I hear students say, 
'' The world does n't care about what I know ; it cares about 
what I can do." Usually such students have the notion that 
there is little connection between knowing and doing. As a 
matter of fact, almost all significant social doing depends 
upon a well-organized body of technical information, and in 
many positions the amount of information to be acquired as 
the basis of efficiency is very large. 

In view of these facts we shall emphasize training in the 
use of books and other printed material as the basis of some 
of the most important methods of instruction to be used by 
teachers in high school. 

Books used as textbooks ; for supplementary reading ; for 
investigations. — Procedures in using printed material as 
the source of subject matter in school may be classified as 
follows : 

1. Study and recitations based upon required textbooks. 

2. The use of other printed material by the students. 

a. As supplementary to required textbooks. 

b. As the principal source of subject matter for reg- 
ular recitations. 

c. As the basis of extended reports by students, pre- 
pared after independent search in many sources for 
material. 

We shall consider these methods of procedure in the 
above order. 

Textbooks. Exercise care to select well-constructed, appro- 
priate ones. — The first important point in connection with 
the use of textbooks is to exercise the greatest care in making 
the proper selection. The teacher should acquaint himself 
with all the best textbooks in his line by reading reviews 
of new books in educational journals, by examining collec- 
tions of textbooks whenever opportunity offers, in bookstores. 



422 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

libraries, etc. and by discussing the relative merits of text- 
books with other teachers. In determining the merits of a 
book the principles laid down in Chapter IV on the selection 
and arrangement of subject matter are especially important, 
and the reader should review them at this point and con- 
sider their application to the selection of textbooks. If this 
is done, the teacher will select textbooks which contain mate- 
rial that is related to contemporary social needs, and that is 
adapted to students of the special type that he has to teach. 
Moreover, instead of containing a very meager treatment of a 
great many topics, each book should contain a very full, illu- 
minating treatment of a few topics. If the term textbook 
must continue to suggest merely outlines of topics and atten- 
uated general statements which need much further elabora- 
tion and explanation to enable students to understand and 
appreciate them, it is time we adopted a term that would 
suggest sufficient fullness of treatment of a limited number 
of topics to convey easily to the reader a clear understanding 
of the topics discussed. As Thorndike says, '' There is no 
wisdom in the notion that a textbook is to give the subject 
matter of a course, but in so difficult a form that every teacher 
must illustrate and explain it at great length." (4 : 163) 

Avoid mistmderstanding and misuse by teacher. — After a 
textbook is adopted, the teacher should study it thoroughly in 
order to use it intelligently. Some books do not involve any 
necessary order in the study of the chapters which they con- 
tain. In such cases any order which the teacher may devise 
might prove satisfactory. In other books, however, little de- 
parture should be made from the regular order of the chapters. 
For example, in Coulter's '' Plant Relations " technical terms 
are introduced gradually. In the beginning, terms of ordinary 
speech are used almost altogether, but now and then, when 
a technical term can be introduced to advantage, it is inserted 
in parenthesis after the ordinary term and soon is substituted- 
entirely for the latter. As the reader progresses through the 



THE USE OF BOOKS 423 

book the language becomes more and more technical, until 
he encounters such sentences as are contained in the quo- 
tation given above near the bottom of page 206. Obviously, 
a high-school student introduced to the book at this point 
would have great difficulty in reading it. 

Another type of mistake in using textbooks is illustrated 
in the use of Thorndike's '' Principles of Teaching," with 
which readers of this book are probably familiar. One third 
of Thorndike's book is devoted to exercises or problems which 
it is expected will occupy two thirds of the student's time 
when he is studying the book. Yet I have known instructors 
who used the '' Principles of Teaching" as a required text- 
book but did not have the students study the exercises at all. 
This shows that even when a textbook is so constructed as to 
provide especially for reflective thinking, teachers may fail to 
use it so as to secure this desirable mental activity. Such 
misuse of textbooks leads Thorndike to say : 

Many of the evils attributed to the overuse of textbooks are 
really due to misunderstanding and misuse of them. In the case 
of a good textbook there is a reason for every item and for its 
position in the whole. Too few teachers know the exact purpose 
of the textbooks they use. Too often a teacher uses a section of 
a book much as a savage might use a coat to cover his legs, or 
as a child uses a saw to cut a string, scissors to cut a board, and 
a padlock as a bracelet. (4 : 166) 

Review prmciples that apply. — In the use of the text- 
books the following sets of principles, discussed at length 
above, should be applied by the reader : ( i ) Principles of 
economy in handling materials, discussed on pages 34-41 ; 
(2) economy in memorizing (pp. 153-164); (3) reflective 
thinking (pp. 171-176, 191, 203, 206-212); (4) distinc- 
tion between studying and reading for enjoyment (p. 262) ; 
(5) avoiding verbalism (that is, words without ideas) and put- 
ting the pupil in the right frame of mind (pp. 301-31 1); 



424 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

(6) V arousing interest in assignments (pp. 338-339); and 

(7) assisting pupils while they are studying the textbook 
(pp. 41 1-4 1 7). The specific application of these principles 
to the use of the textbooks need not be elaborated here. 

Textbooks fiLimish most economical basis of instntction. — 
If properly constructed and used, textbooks provide the most 
economical form of instruction. As compared with the lec- 
ture method, for example, Thorndike estimates that '' the 
actual facts, principles, and applications given in a college 
course of ninety hours can often be printed in a book that a 
capable reader could get through in nine hours." (4 : 162) 

Textbook may train in ^'■efiective study. — Moreover, if 
properly constructed and used, textbooks may not only serve 
as a source of information but also provide directed train- 
ing in reflective thinking. The construction of textbooks 
to provide such training in other subjects than mathematics 
has been treated at length in the chapter on reflective think- 
ing (pp. 1 71-176). 

In order to secure reflective study instead of mere mem- 
orizing, two practices are desirable : ( i ) assignments should 
be so made as to necessitate a study of the textbook in order 
to comprehend it and to secure answers to problems or ques- 
tions which involve analytical study ; (2) the recitation period 
should be used largely for interpretative and supplementary 
discussions instead of simply for testing to determine whether 
the students have studied their lessons. If the method of super- 
vised study is employed, the text assignment will be taken 
up for discussion before it is read completely by the students ; 
then the class will be put to studying it while the teacher 
passes around the room and supervises. The objective results 
in the form of outlines, etc., described above on page 412, 
should require reflective attentive analysis of the assignment. 

Use recitation for interpretation and application. — The 
common practice of using the class period for mere repe- 
tition of material learned in the textbook is one of the most 



THE USE OF BOOKS 425 

pernicious sources of waste and lack of interest to be found in 
schools. Time is wasted because nothing new is provided for 
those who have learned their lessons, and interest is lacking 
for the same reason. Almost the only way to secure interest in 
such recitations is by appeals to emulation or to the desire to 
show off, or through fear of some penalty. Instead of such 
recitations the teacher should raise questions which keep the 
pupils actively thinking because they involve (i) interpreta- 
tion, (2) criticism, (3) supplementing, or (4) application along 
the lines studied in the assignment. The fact that the major 
part of the recitation period is to be given up to this type of 
activity does not mean, however, that quizzing to determine 
whether the lesson has been learned should be omitted 
altogether. The latter practice should also be specifically 
provided for, as will be described in a later chapter on testing. 
Supplementary reading. Provide definite assignments to 
sufficient duplicates. — A most fruitful and valuable method 
of instruction is to have one or two required textbooks pos- 
sessed by all students in the class, and to supply in addition 
to these a sufficient number of duplicate copies of a few closely 
related books, which will be kept on reserve in the library or 
classroom for the use of all classes that are studying the sub- 
ject which they cover. These may consist of other textbooks 
or of source books or more general treatises. Sometimes these 
may be read and studied in class, as described above on page 
38. The value of such critical, interpretative treatment of 
printed material is self-evident. The justification for equip- 
ping schoolrooms and libraries for this purpose is set forth 
by Keatinge in the following quotation, which follows his 
discussion of the using of sources in history for the solution 
of problems, as described above on page 174. 

For work of this kind it is essential that the apparatus, that is 
to say, the documents, shall be in the pupils' hands. Documents 
as 7'ead to a class have their value as giving atmosphere, but for 
the present purpose each boy must have his own book of extracts, 



426 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

which can be supplemented on the part of the teacher by [mimeo-] 
graphed slips. The science teacher is not expected to obtain 
results without apparatus ; each boy is provided with his bench, 
his balance, his test tubes, and his water tap. It would be in the 
highest degree unreasonable to ask the history teacher to convert 
his subject into an educational instrument with nothing but the 
textbook to fall back upon. 

Here there is difficulty to be faced. If documents are to be 
provided in the necessary abundance, a series of volumes is re- 
quired, and many schoolmasters would shrink from asking their 
pupils to buy a fresh book, at the cost of a few shillings, for each 
short period of English history. The science laboratory indicates 
the solution of the problem. Boys are not expected to buy their 
own water taps, Bunsen burners, and other apparatus ; the school 
provides them and sometimes makes a small . . . charge for their 
use. In the same way the source books here referred to must be 
supplied as school property, and the sum of some twenty-five pounds 
will supply a complete laboratory for school use. (5 : 92-93) 

Library reading afi uneconomical primary sonrce of s?tb- 
ject matter. — Sometimes teachers advocate having no re- 
quired textbooks and depending entirely upon reference 
reading as the source of subject matter. If nearly all study- 
ing is done during the regular school day, and thoroughly 
adequate equipment is provided, and definite page references 
given in the assignments, this method may work satisfactorily. 
Sometimes teachers try to use this method, especially in col- 
lege, without providing for these essential points. The result 
is that students waste a large amount of time trying to get an 
opportunity to read the assignments. This point has already 
been covered in the chapter on economy in classroom man- 
agement (p. 38). Often the very instructors who object most 
strenuously to the use of textbook methods are the ones that 
are most careless and neglectful in attending to the routine 
of organizing the arrangements for reference and reserve 
books. On the other hand, the teachers who provide for 
the most economical, effective, and educative use of required 



THE USE OF BOOKS 427 

textbooks by their students sometimes provide most thor- 
oughly for supplementary reading also. 

Use mimeographed study questions for directing reading. 
— In order to make such supplementary reading economical 
and effective, the teacher should provide not only mimeo- 
graphed page references, but also copies of questions or prob- 
lems to be used as the basis for examining each reference. 
An example of such a practice is the following from the 
work in history conducted by Mr. A. F. Barnard in the 
University of Chicago High School. 

THE WAR WITH PYRRHUS 
Assignment : Plutarch — Life of Pyrrhus 

1. From what heroes was Pyrrhus descended, according to 
legend? (Sec. i.) 

2. What was Hannibal's opinion of Pyrrhus as a general ? 
(Sec. 8.) 

3. What were the difficulties of the Tarentines ? (Sec. 13.) 

4. Why did they choose Pyrrhus as ally.? (Sec, 13.) 

5. What were the motives of Pyrrhus in accepting the invitation 
of the Tarentines .? (Sec. 1 4.) 

6. What were the forces of Pyrrhus, according to Plutarch ? 
(Sec. 15.) 

7. How did Pyrrhus prepare the Tarentines for war ? (Sec. 16.) 

8. What did Pyrrhus commend in the Roman army at 
Heraclea? (Sec. 16.) 

9. Give reasons for the defeat of the Romans. (Sec. 17.) 

10. What was the comment of Fabricus on the result of the 
battle? (Sec. 18.) 

Contribution recitation based on varied S7ipplem,entary 
assignments . — The definite assignments to easily obtained 
supplementary material may be varied for the different mem- 
bers of the class either by assigning different topics to dif- 
ferent students or by assigning different authorities to be 
consulted upon the same topic. Such assignments give the 



428 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

basis for contribution recitations, to which reference was made 
on page 288. If such assignments are properly routinized 
and students held strictly accountable for results (that is, 
for consulting the authorities, mastering the content, and 
expressing it well in their own words when called upon), the 
contribution recitation constitutes probably the best type of 
classroom activity in connection with the content subjects. 

Reports based on independent investigations of assigned 
topics. Special technique of administering. — A much more 
elaborate development of the contribution recitation is found 
in the oral reports made by students after considerable inde- 
pendent search, covering days or weeks, for material upon 
specially assigned topics. Such reports involve all the essen- 
tial elements of the best training in expression and in the 
use of books ; namely, 

1. A clearly defined topic or problem upon which infor- 
mation is desired. 

2. Independent search for printed discussions bearing 
upon the topic. 

3. Selection of relevant material from much that is 
irrelevant. 

4. Independent, careful organization of the relevant ma- 
terial in the form of briefs. 

5. Expression of the results of the investigation to an 
audience. 

In the administration of such a system of reports many 
conferences between the teacher and individual pupils must 
be held. If regular periods of supervised study are provided, 
or conference hours by the instructor, these conferences can 
easily be arranged. At all points both economy of effort and 
effective training must be kept in mind. We shall comment 
on each of the elements numbered above from these points 
of view. 

I . Define topic clearly during conferences . — In defining 
the assignment the teacher will necessarily play a large part, 



THE USE OF BOOKS 429 

since each pupil's topic and report must fit into a well- 
organized scheme. It will usually be found, however, that 
the student cannot get the limitations and essentials of his 
topic in mind at the first conference, because he has little 
background or basis for doing so. Hence he should be sent 
away with the direction to come for another conference after 
he has spent from one to two hours working upon the topic 
in the library. During this work the topic will begin to open 
up to him, and in a second conference much progress can 
be made in laying down the general lines that are to be 
followed in the investigation. At all stages, however, the 
instructor must watch the student's success in keeping to 
his problem or topic. This is important not only from the 
standpoint of the training it affords the student, but also 
because it avoids overlapping in the oral reports. Such over- 
lapping removes one of the most essential conditions of suc- 
cess in the scheme ; namely, the existence of a real audience 
situation for each student who is reporting. 

2. Definite bibliographical training for independent hi- 
vestigation. — In having the student search independently 
for material on his topic, the element of economy of time 
and effort is sacrificed somewhat in order to secure greater 
training. This contrasts very strongly with the course pursued 
in using supplementary assignments as the source of subject 
matter for daily recitations, for in the latter case the most 
definite page references to readings are desirable. However, 
the requirement that students should search independently 
for material does not mean that they should search without 
the aid of all the methods of skilled bibliographical work 
that can be placed at their disposal. On the contrary, they 
should have definite specific training in bibliographical prac- 
tice. This training should be inaugurated by the librarian of 
the high school (if there is such a person and he is well 
trained), or by the English department, or by some member 
of the faculty who is a skilled bibliographer — for some 



430 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

teachers are by nature and training much more skilled than 
others in directing library work. The essential elements in 
the technique of bibliographical work can be taught in a few 
lessons. The chief matters to be taken up for discussion are 
the following : 

a. The location of libraries and collections which the 
students may use. 

b. The systems of classification, cataloguing, and shelving 
used in the libraries to which the students have access. 

c. The names and methods of using standard general 
books of reference, such as the various encyclopedias, 
atlases, almanacs, yearbooks, statistical summaries, etc. 

d. The names and methods of using the general peri- 
odical indexes, such as Poole's Index, the Cumulative Index 
to Periodical Literature, etc. 

e. The names of special bibliographical aids in the field 
in which the topic under investigation lies, be it chemistry, 
or history, or literature. 

f. The methods of making a fairly thorough, representa- 
tive, descriptive bibliography on a given topic before doing 
much intensive reading on a few references. 

If the students have not received general training along 
the above lines, the teacher using the method of supplemen- 
tary individual reports which we are discussing would have 
to train the students himself. He could do this by giving 
the class general directions and discussions, and he might 
also spend a little time in the high-school library or public 
library when his students are there, in order to give them 
individual assistance at the beginning. 

Thorough preliminary bibliographical survey to precede 
intensive reading. — Paragraph f, concerning the methods 
of making a survey of the available material before study- 
ing any of it intensively, deserves special emphasis, since 
much time is often wasted through failure to follow this rule. 
Thus, even college graduates will often spend hours in reading 



THE USE OF BOOKS 431 

relatively poor discussions of a topic, because they happen to 
have found them first, when they might have saved this time 
and been reading much more useful discussions if they had 
continued their preliminary bibliographical survey until they 
had covered the standard literature in the related field. I have 
encountered graduate students in my classes who had been 
working upon experimental investigations of educational topics 
for six months, and who, when asked if any similar investiga- 
tions had been made, have replied, '' No." Then, when they 
have been directed to spend five or ten hours upon biblio- 
graphical work, they have not only found many critical 
printed discussions on the topic, of which they had no pre- 
vious knowledge, but have sometimes found that the very 
problem upon which they were at work had been thoroughly 
investigated by others. 

The number of references that can be found, examined 
briefly, and described in writing in a few hours of well-directed 
bibliographical work is usually astonishing to students who 
have never attempted it. When this preliminary survey is 
well done, it commonly results in the discovery of excel- 
lent references that would otherwise have been missed alto- 
gether, and it saves spending time upon the reading of 
inferior, second-hand material. Hence the instructor should 
require the student to report at a conference with a repre- 
sentative, descriptive bibliography before he proceeds to do 
much intensive study of selected references. There is a 
striking contrast between the results obtained in high school 
by this method and those obtained by one in which the 
student finds one or two references and copies his mate- 
rial from them. 

For an excellent example of a descriptive bibliography (that 
is, one that contains a brief description of each reference) the 
reader should examine the one on The High-School Library, 
in Johnson's ''High-School Education." (2: 527-531.) This 
will not only give a clear idea of the character of a good 



432 TEACHING IK HIGH SCHOOLS 

bibliography, but will also put the reader in touch with much 
valuable material along the line of the present discussion. 

Sometimes, in order that economy of effort may not be 
too much sacrificed in favor of training in independent search 
for sources of information, the teacher may start the student 
with one or two references which will open up the way to 
others. As indicated in the discussion of the collecting in- 
stinct, on page 354, the process by which initial references 
lead to the finding of others, and these to still others, is 
often a fascinating one. Unfortunately it often happens that 
even a graduate student, whom the instructor has started by 
referring him to a specific chapter that is filled with refer- 
ences to the monograph literature on the topic under investi- 
gation, will come back to his next conference for further aid 
without its ever occurring to him to pursue the references 
thus opened up to him. 

3. Stimulate the carefid selection of relevant material. — 
Training in the rigid selection of relevant material is generally 
needed by high-school students, since it is also needed even 
by college students and graduates. Students very commonly 
fail to distinguish between material that is interesting in gen- 
eral and material that is strictly relevant to the topic as it has 
been defined for the purpose of the report to be prepared. 
Often, as a result either of mental laziness or of failure to 
discriminate, they will bring, along with pertinent citations 
which they have found, much discussion which may have 
been appropriate in the article from which they have culled 
the material, but which is not appropriate to their own topic. 
It is clearly the business of the teacher to check this tendency 
in the conferences and also in the oral reports, if the irrele- 
vant material ever gets that far. 

4. Well-organized brief necessary for clear and relevant 
report. — In order that the oral reports may be protected 
against just such inadvertences as were mentioned in the 
preceding paragraph, it is especially important that before a 



THE USE OF BOOKS 433 

report of any considerable length is presented, the brief upon 
which it is based should be examined by the teacher. The 
brief should be very strictly inspected from the standpoint 
of clearness of thinking, relevancy of material, organization 
and value of points, clearness of phraseology, etc. As stated 
above, on page 280, where the use of briefs was discussed 
at length from the standpoint of training in expression, they 
should not be accepted in the form of mere outlines of topics, 
but should consist of completely and concisely stated propo- 
sitions or sentences. 

5 . Oral reports to be varied with capacities of sttidents. — 
The oral reports upon topics which have been investigated 
and developed as described above may vary from two minutes 
to fifteen minutes in the case of most high-school students. 
Occasionally, longer reports may be given by specially quali- 
fied members of the class. Individual differences in capacity 
make an enormous difference in the amount of time to be 
allotted to different students. If a student is so obviously 
deficient in native talent for making oral reports that he 
would never be expected to do anything in this line in the 
world at large, it would probably be well not to permit him 
to give an oral report, in order to avoid wasting the time 
of the class. Other students might be relatively lacking in 
capacity but still be capable of getting material into shape for 
a report of two or three minutes, on topics of special interest 
to them and on which they were especially well informed. 
In a high school where this method of reporting was in regu- 
lar use in the content subjects, fully two thirds of the students 
were able to make reports that were satisfactory from the 
standpoint of effectiveness and the economy of time and effort 
of all concerned. 

Inasmuch as these reports should be merely supplementary 
to well-organized required reading in textbooks and reserved 
books, they will not be very frequent. It would furnish very 
valuable training, however, if each fairly capable student could 



434 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

give two reports a year in each of two or three subjects — for 
example, in history, science, and Hterature. For each of these 
reports considerable time could be spent in library work and 
in the organization and preparation of the material for pres- 
entation. In addition to these longer occasional reports, 
shorter reports of two or three minutes' length might be pre- 
sented at nearly every recitation. Many teachers follow this 
practice not only in high school but, in some cases, even in 
the elementary schools. 

A valuable form of training administered by standardized 
routine. — The system of reports discussed above illustrates 
the combination of general pedagogical principles which occurs 
a number of times in our discussion, (i) In the first place, 
a process and method which is of fundamental importance 
and value in social life should be represented in the training 
provided in school. The independent investigation of topics 
and the organization of reports upon them is the example 
which concerns us here. (2) In the second place, the system 
of training which is recommended departs from the ordinary 
practice of depending entirely upon textbook recitations, and 
seems very elaborate, since it requires many varied assign- 
ments to different students and conferences with individuals. 
(3) But even the most novel and complicated scheme can 
be effectively administered with little extra time and effort if 
special machinery is devised so that a large part of the admin- 
istration becomes a matter of routine. Thus every movement 
proceeds according to certain definitely standardized steps, 
which are routinized through printed and mimeographed 
directions and by strict adherence to definitely established 
rules of procedure. 

Conclusion of discussion of use of books. — In this chapter 
we noted first that the use of books constitutes one of the 
most important and valuable methods of study in social life. 
In providing corresponding training in school, properly 
selected textbooks furnish the most economical basis. These 



THE USE OF BOOKS 435 

should contain thorough and adequate discussions of carefully 
selected topics and should be used so as to require reflective 
analytical study and interpretation as well as memorizing. 
Textbooks should often be supplemented in the daily class 
assignments by definitely assigned readings in a select list of 
supplementary books, of which a sufficient number of dupli- 
cate copies are available. In some of the content subjects 
further training should be provided in the independent 
investigation of topics by standard bibliographical methods, 
according to a definitely standardized, routinized scheme of 
assignments, conferences, briefs, and oral reports. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES 

1. Charters, W. W. Methods of Teaching. (Row, Peterson and 
Co., 191 2.) Pp. 278-295. A chapter on the use of textbooks. 

2. KocK, T. The High School Library. In Johnson, C. H., High 
School Educatioft. (Charles Scribner's Sons, 191 2.) Pp. 460-470 and 
pp. 526-531. An excellent chapter with a bibliography which should 
serve as a model to all makers of bibliographies. 

3. Strayer, G. D. The Teaching Process. (The Macmillan Com- 
pany, 191 1.) Pp. 107-113. A chapter on the recitation lesson. 

4. Thorndike, E. L. Education., a First Book. (The Macmillan 
Company, 191 2.) Pp. 1 61-167. A strikingly original discussion of the 
use of textbooks. 

Quoted incidentally in the chapter. — 5. Keatinge, M. W. 
Studies in the Teaching of History . (A. C. Black, London, 1910.) 



CHAPTER XVIII 

CONVERSATIONAL METHODS 

Main points of the chapter, i. Conversational methods depend 
largely on the past experiences of students as the sources of 
subject matter. 

2. These methods were popularized in the form of Pestalozzian 
oral instruction and Herbartian development methods in the nine- 
teenth century. 

3. The Socratic method is an especially circuitous form of the 
conversational method. 

4. Conversational methods are very likely to be wasteful unless 
controlled by definite objective points and unless the teacher fre- 
quently tells the subject matter instead of waiting to elicit it by 
questions. 

5. Conversational methods are especially useful in reflective 
thinking and in making assignments of lessons to be studied. , 

Conversational method works over the student's previous 
experiences. — The methods which we discussed in the pre- 
ceding chapter on the use of books placed the emphasis upon 
enriching the student's experience by adding to it in consid- 
erable degree. The conversational method, which we shall 
consider in this chapter, depends largely upon experiences 
which the students already possess. These are recalled and 
worked over so as to derive new combinations of familiar ele- 
ments. From time to time the teacher may give new infor- 
mation if it is needed, but for the most part he asks questions 
which require the students to recall certain previous experi- 
ences and view them from a new angle or use them for a 
new purpose. Sometimes the experiences which are drawn 
upon are quite similar for all the students. For an example, 

436 



CONVERSATIONAL METHODS 43/ 

recall the instruction concerning the difference between chem- 
ical and physical changes, described above on page 207. If 
the teacher wished to work out this difference by the conver- 
sational method instead of having it set forth in the textbook, 
the examples used (namely, rusting iron, exploding powder, 
etc.) would probably be common to the experiences of all the 
students. On the other hand, in discussing some topics cer- 
tain students would be able to contribute pertinent experi- 
ences which would have been shared by YQxy fezv members 
of the class. For example, in geography lessons it often 
happens that students who have traveled or lived in different 
parts of the country are able to give just as good and full 
information concerning a certain region as is found in the 
books, and to give it more vividly and at just the point where 
it is needed in the discussion. Thus, in a Chicago school a 
lesson on the climate of California was being taught largely 
by conversation based on a consideration of the fundamental 
facts of elevation, prevailing winds, etc. Certain students who 
had been in San Francisco and others who had been in South- 
ern California gave descriptions of the climate of these re- 
gions, which verified the conclusions reached by the reflective 
consideration of physiographic data derived from the map. 

Sometimes called the development m,ethod. — The conver- 
sational method is especially usable in reflective thinking or 
reasoning, because students already possess a large body of 
experiences which may be analyzed, compared, classified, and 
worked up into generalizations or interpreted from the stand- 
point of generalizations which have already been achieved. 
It may also be used in connection with other types of learn- 
ing, but not so extensively. It is commonly called the devel- 
opment method, but the term conversational method is chosen 
for use here because it is more descriptive of the character 
of the process of give and take which is carried on between 
teacher and pupils who are at work upon a common topic 
of discussion. 



438 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

Entails large zvaste if used by an ignorant teacher, — 
Apparently skilled teaching may be carried on by the conver- 
sational method by teachers who have had little training but 
who possess considerable natural teaching ability. The teacher 
and students are all mentally alert, there is keen questioning 
and active discussion, and the process appears very fine to 
an ordinary observer. To many persons such activity repre- 
sents the acme of skill in teaching ; and possibly it is, if the 
content that is worked out is of value and the conclusions 
are true. Unfortunately such is often not the case, and igno- 
rant teachers frequently make students waste their time in 
learning matters that are useless or even false. It would be 
much better for them to be discussing and interpreting the 
meaning of assignments in textbooks which contained material 
carefully selected and arranged by experts in the subject. 

Popularized as Pestalozzian oral instruction in nineteenth 
century. — The conversational method became popular during 
the nineteenth century as one phase of the Pestalozzian im- 
provements in method, especially in elementary schools. In 
the Pestalozzian reforms oral or conversational instruction 
went hand in hand with object teaching, which began to 
supplement textbook instruction to a considerable extent. 
A new type of skill was required in the former method, 
different from that often employed in textbook instruction. 
Hence we find schoolmen of this period commenting on this 
fact ; for example, W. T. Harris, in his report as superin- 
tendent of the St. Louis schools in 1870, wrote as follows 
concerning conversational instruction : 

It seems to me this phase of the subject — its value to the 
teacher — is worth quite as much as the immediate value of these 
lessons to the pupil. . . . The teacher is led to study and thoroughly 
prepare herself, and then in the lesson she is led to probe, in a 
freer manner than ordinary, the miscellaneous fund of experience 
possessed by the individuals of her class; thus she cannot fail to 
find herself getting more and more emancipated from the slavish 



CONVERSATIONAL METHODS 439 

use of the textbook and able to stand before her class with a con- 
sciousness of her strength and ability to draw out the resources of 
each and all her pupils and combine the same into one result. 

Exploited by American Herbartians after 1890. — A second 
impulse which tended to popularize the conversational method 
came from the activities of American followers of Herbart, 
whose theories were vigorously elaborated and exploited in 
the United States from about 1890 to 1900. The best-known 
exposition of the Herbartian use of the conversational method 
is found in the chapters by Frank McMurry in " The 
Method of the Recitation" (published 1897; revised 1903), 
a book written by two brothers. In treating the step which 
is known in the Herbartian process of instruction as the 
step of p7^esentatio7t, Frank McMurry says : 

The developing plan of teaching is one radically different from 
the lecture and the textbook methods. The teacher who employs 
it lectures but little to her class, although it is important to re- 
member that she does tell some things outright ; neither does she 
allow the facts that are to be learned to be first presented through 
a textbook ; she prefers to develop facts and conclusions by con- 
versation with the pupils. (4: 121-122) 

Example of conversational treatment of a geography lesson. 
— As an example McMurry details a conversational lesson 
on the industrial geography of the British Isles as follows : 

In the developing plan the book would not be used at first ; the 
following might be the nature of the conversation that takes place 
in the class, the teacher beginning thus : 

Many years ago it was discovered that there was an abundance 
of iron ore in England (showing where). Also a great quantity of 
coal was found in certain places (use map). So much being true, 
what might follow ? When people have plenty of iron ore and coal, 
they can make pig-iron and all sorts of things . . . ; for instance, 
nails, screws, hatchets, axes, plows, rails, locomotives, all sorts of 
machinery, cutlery, iron ships, etc. What effect would that have 



440 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

upon the number of people to be found in the region where these 
manufactories exist ? Large cities would spring up. Thus, Man- 
chester, Leeds, Sheffield, Birmingham, Nottingham, and Glasgow, 
which you will find on the map. 

Since so many people are engaged in manufacturing, what 
would be done with the articles that they make? They cannot 
use them all at home. Then what will be done with them ? Some 
of them must be sent away to other countries. What, then, will 
be some of the exports of England ? Rails, engines, etc. Through 
what ports would they be likely to leave England ? (Examine map 
frequently.) It would depend upon the direction in which they 
were to be sent. If to Europe, they would go by way of Hull or 
London ; if to America, by way of Liverpool or possibly Bristol. 
What effect would this commerce have upon the size of these ports ? 

If so many of the English people are engaged in manufacturing, 
and they send so many things abroad (to America, for instance), 
what are some of the things that they are likely to need from us ? 
Food. What, therefore, would be some of their imports ? Grain, 
meat, tobacco, etc. 

But England is an excellent country for grass. Can you tell 
why ? Because of the moist atmosphere and frequent rains. A 
considerable part of the country, too, cannot well be cultivated; 
can you tell why from the map ? It is too hilly and rough in the 
west. Yes, also in places it is too swampy. In many of these 
regions sheep are raised. What is likely to follow from that fact ? 
Much wool, much manufacture of clothing, since coal is abundant. 
Hence, increase in size of cities, in importance of ports, etc. ; 
clothing is one of the exports, etc. 

All of this conversation could best take place before the para- 
graph in the book is assigned as a lesson. (4 : 123) 

ConU^asted with lecture method in Herbartian book, — 
Another example of the use of the conversational method as 
a means of presenting lessons to students is given by Frank 
McMurry in the form of a lesson on the battle of Bunker 
Hill. In it the teacher gives a few facts, and then the stu- 
dents are led by questions to discover just how the battle 
was fought out. It is interesting to note that the method of 



CONVERSATIONAL METHODS 441 

handling the step of presentation by the other author of the 
book, namely, Charles McMurry, is just the opposite of 
that used by his brother ; that is, Charles uses the lecture 
method in his sample lessons instead of the conversational 
method. This comes out clearly when we contrast with 
Frank's conversational treatment of the battle of Bunker 
Hill Charles's treatment of the battle of King's Mountain, 
given on pages 270-281 of '' The Method of the Recitation," 
In the latter case the step of presentation consists of eight 
pages of almost solid lecture supposed to be derived by the 
teacher from Irving and Fiske's '' Washington and his 
Country." This extreme contrast in the treatment of the 
same step in the so-called development method is one reason 
why we use the term conversational inetJiod here instead. It 
is often difficult to determine just what is meant by the term 
development as applied in discussions of method. 

Criticism of eliciting everything by questions. — The con- 
trasting extremes in the treatment of the step of presentation, 
namely, conversation and lecturing, are often found in the 
organization of practice teaching in normal schools. The 
extreme of eliciting everything by conversation is criticized 
by Adams in the following quotation : 

The view that all teaching resolves itself into the direct giving 
of information, the telling the pupil something new, has produced 
a natural reaction which leads to error in the application of presen- 
tation, or rather by the elimination of presentation. From their 
studies in theory young teachers are inclined to avoid anything in 
the form of direct presentation. The second step [in the Her- 
bartian formal steps, namely, presentation], while still monopolizing 
their attention, is regarded with suspicion. What is contemptuously 
called " telling " is regarded by these young teachers as in the 
highest degree unintelligent and unscientific, and they fall into ludi- 
crous errors in their efforts to avoid it. Everything must be, in the 
words of their textbooks, '^ elicited from the pupil by skillful ques- 
tioning." They do not realize that there are two kinds of knowl- 
edge, one that must be communicated directly and another that 



442 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

may be worked up from materials already in the mind. We want 
very badly a couple of words to keep those two kinds of knowl- 
edge from getting mixed. I cast covetous eyes on the two words 
information and instruction. The first would very well represent 
the communication of new facts, the second might stand for the 
rearrangement of facts that are already known to the pupil-mind 
in one way, but that, by being recombined, may produce knowledge 
that was latent, if you like, but that certainly would never have 
come to light at that stage but for the intermediation of the 
teacher. It is information to tell me the Japanese word for a tree. 
If I do not happen to know the word, no amount of skillful ques- 
tioning will ever elicit it from me. On the other hand, the general- 
ized formulae of Euler's theorem may be said to be implicit in the 
pupil's mind before he approaches the problem. All the teacher 
has to do is to arrange that certain ideas shall be grouped in a 
particular way, and the formulae issue of themselves. The mean- 
ing of instruere, that our dealings with Caesar have familiarized us 
with, comes in very appositely here. The general draws up the 
line of battle, now making one formation, now another. In every 
case the men, like the ideas, are given. Information is as different 
from instruction as recruiting is from drilling. (1 : 153) 

The Socratic method a circuitous form of the conversational 
method. — A special form of the conversational method is the 
Socratic method. Sometimes the latter term is used to desig- 
nate any question-and-answer method of instruction, but this 
is probably too broad a meaning to give it. There are two 
notable characteristics of the dialogues which we think of as 
being those of Socrates : the first is that Socrates did nearly 
all of the thinking and suggesting, the person who was ques- 
tioned serving largely as a foil or mark, just as one end man 
does in a minstrel show when the other is telling a joke ; 
the second characteristic is the large amount of contradiction 
in which Socrates artfully entangled the unsuspecting foil or 
'' quizzee." Just as the minstrel method often seems a need- 
lessly long-winded, unnecessarily elaborated method of getting 
a joke to an intelligent audience, so the Socratic method, 



CONVERSATIONAL METHODS 443 

when applied to the teaching of specific truths, seems a 
needlessly roundabout and wasteful method of reaching a 
definite point. 

Example of modern Socratic m,ethod. — An example of a 
typical Socratic lesson is given by Adams and quoted below. 
In studying it the reader should consider whether a more 
direct method of handling the difficulty would not have been 
more economical and just as effective. Adams says : 

To illustrate, take the case of that constant difficulty at the 
early stages of composition, the incomplete sentence. Pupils 
brought up in illiterate homes are very apt to make a relative 
clause stand by itself, with no other help than the original gram- 
matical subject. In schools where the pupils come from homes 
in which grammatical English is habitually spoken, there is not so 
much danger of this particular form of error, but every teacher in a 
school for the poorer classes is unpleasantly familiar with such a sen- 
tence in a pupil's exercise book as ''John who broke the window." 
The following is a verbatim reproduction of a lesson actually given 
to a class of about sixty-five rather dull boys whose ages average 
eleven and one-half years. The sentence had occurred in one of 
the class exercise books, and was placed on the blackboard, as it had 
been written, with the addition of a comma after the word John. 

Teacher. Now what did John do ? 

Pupil. (Confidently) Broke the window. 

T. Then what did zuho do ? 

P. Broke the window. 

T. Were there two windows, then ? 

P. No, sir. 

T. Then who broke it ? 

P. John. 

T. And what did who do 1 

P. (Doubtfully) It says " who broke the window." 

T. Did it take two to break the window .? 

P. No, sir. 

T. Then which of them did the breaking ? 

(Pupils puzzled. No answer.) 

T. How many people were there altogether ? 



444 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

F. (Cautiously) John and who. 

T. Now, which was bigger, John or who ? 

P. They 're both the same. 

T. Then there was only one person there ? 

P. Yes, sir. 

T. And what was his name ? 

P. John. 

T. And what did he do ? 

P. Broke the window. 

T. Then would it not be enough to say, "John broke the 
window " ? 

P. Yes, sir. 

T. Is that what it says on the blackboard ? 

P. No, sir ; it says, " John who broke the window." 

T. And John and who are the same person ? 

P. Yes, sir. 

T. Then they both have the same right to the verb ? 

P. Yes, sir. 

T. Which of them is nearer the verb ? 

P. Who. 

T. What mark is between John and the verb ? 

P. A comma. 

T. Now if only one of the two can claim the verb, which has 
the better right to it ? 

P. Who. 

T. And every noun and pronoun that is a subject must have 
a verb ? 

P. Yes, sir. 

T. Then if who gets broke., what verb is left for John ? 

P. None. 

T, How many subjects are there here ? 

P. Two. 

T. And how many verbs ? 

P. One. 

T. And every subject must have a verb ? 

P. Yes, sir. 

T. How many verbs do we need, then, besides broke ? 

P. One. 



CONVERSATIONAL METHODS 445 

T. Give me one. 

(No answer.) 
T. John (who broke the window) did something, or was some- 
thing. What would you do if you broke a window ? 
P. (Promptly) Run away, sir. 

T. Finish it, then. John, who broke the window, . 

P. Ran away. 

T. Which are the two verbs now ? 

P. Broke and ran. 

T. Which belongs specially to who ? 

P. Broke. 

T. And to John ? 

P. Ran. (1: 81-82) 

Some teachers approve extreme wandering in discussions. 

— Sometimes teachers who are using the conversational 
method do not keep any specific objective point in mind, 
being unlike Socrates, who always had a definite purpose, 
although the foil or person who was being questioned was 
generally unaware of it and did n't know whither he was be- 
ing driven. These teachers sometimes say they do not care 
where the students arrive, so long as they are mentally active. 
The teachers take up with any issue that is raised in the class 
discussion and follow it anywhere it leads. Sometimes they 
sincerely believe that this is the best use to which the class 
period could be put. Sometimes they are lazy teachers who 
fail to prepare definite material for the period and find it an 
easy way to keep the class interested and to get through the 
hour. . Sometimes they are easy teachers who do not require 
their students to study consistently and for whom the latter 
prepare by saying, "Let 's see if we can't get up a discussion 
to-day, so we won't have to recite." Sometimes the teachers 
are incompetent thinkers, who cannot distinguish quickly 
between what is relevant and useful and what is not ; hence 
they easily get led astray in the discussions by inappropriate 
suggestions of the students. 



446 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

Much better to tell some things than to waste time. ■ — 
Such poor administration of the conversational, or question- 
and-answer, method is condemned by Bagley in the follow- 
ing words : 

Among some educators there is a superstition that the question- 
and-answer method is the only true method of instruction. This 
exaggerated view finds expression in the unwillingness to impart 
information in any way save by Socratic questioning. Valuable 
time is spent in attempting to get children to discover unimportant 
truths under a vague and hazy notion that it does n't matter much 
what the truth is so long as the child discovers it for himself, and 
so anxious is the teacher to have him discover it for himself that 
he spends twenty or thirty minutes in a '" pumping " process to 
get a result which could have been stated in as many seconds. 

It is this tendency to beat about the bush that constitutes the 
most dangerous pitfall of the question-and-answer method. Some 
judgments are not worth developing ; they may better be stated as 
clearly and tersely as possible. The danger of confusing the pupil 
with a mass of details is also a source of some inadequate results 
in the application of this method by unskilled teachers. If the 
teacher is himself incapable of keeping system and unity in his 
thinking, he will find that his pupils cannot do it for him. (2 : 274) 

Conversational method zvastefully tised in pedagogical dis- 
cussions. — Some of the best examples of the enormous waste 
that sometimes characterizes the conversational method are 
found in the discussions in classes which are studying edu- 
cation. For example, I visited a class of graduate students 
which was discussing methods of teaching music. They be- 
came sidetracked on some point concerning the perception 
of tonal differences. Nobody in the class, including the 
teacher, really had any reliable knowledge about the matter. 
Yet they spent forty-five minutes debating it vigorously, 
although they were no nearer the truth at the end than at 
the beginning of the discussion. After the class was over, 
I went to the library, took down from the shelves a book on 



CONVERSATIONAL METHODS 447 

the '' Psychology of Tone Perception," looked up the topic 
in the index, turned to the appropriate page, and found in 
three minutes the experimentally determined answer to the 
question upon which thirty adults had each wasted forty-five 
minutes of debate — a total of one thousand three hundred 
fifty minutes, or twenty-two and one-half hours, of human time. 

Legitimate uses. Conversational sohUion of problems valu- 
able if properly controlled. — In spite of the obvious dangers 
which beset the use of the conversational method, it has cer- 
tain very legitimate uses. As suggested above, its best place 
is in the reflective solution of problems which the teacher has 
thoroughly mastered and for which the children possess the 
necessary data in their past experience. In such cases the 
important things for the teacher to keep in mind are the 
following: (i) To avoid being sidetracked. (2) To avoid 
spending too much time in an endeavor to get the class to 
discover a point. In order to preserve the balance of relative 
values the teacher should give some points outright or after 
a brief endeavor of the class to discover them. (3) To adapt 
the pace to individual differences in capacities, not holding 
up the bright pupils too long or hurrying so fast that the 
slow have no chance to contribute. 

Conversational assignments importafit aids to study. — 
Another place where the conversational method is especially 
valuable is in assigning lessons to be studied. In the case of 
reflective thinking it serves to get the problem in mind, to 
get started upon its solution, to anticipate and eliminate some 
of the chief difficulties, and to arouse curiosity to pursue the 
matter farther. In the case of acquiring habits of enjoyment 
it serves to give the necessary emotional setting which will be 
conducive to responses of enjoyment. In the case of training 
in expression a preliminary conversation may be very effective 
in getting students aroused to the point of being desirous of 
expressing themselves. It also aids in getting topics deflned 
and even in getting freshly in mind the more formal phases 



448 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

of technique, such as outHning, paragraphing, etc. Care in the 
making of such conversational assignments is a most impor- 
tant factor in good teaching in many subjects. In order that 
it may be most effective, the assignment should be followed 
immediately by a period of supervised study (cf. p. 415). 

Conversational methods in learning foreign language. — 
Conversational methods have a large place in the teaching 
of a foreign language, but since a special chapter has been 
devoted to the learning of a foreign vocabulary by the direct 
method, no further discussion is necessary (cf. p. 122). 

Conclusion of discussion of conversational methods. — This 
will conclude our discussion of the conversational method, 
which, as we noted above, is considered by many teachers 
to be the most effective of all methods. While it may be 
effective when properly administered, it is relatively uneco- 
nomical in high school as compared with the method of 
interpretative recitations and discussions based on assigned 
readings and lectures. It is especially useful, however, in the 
reflective solution of problems for which students already 
have adequate data. In such cases the activity should be 
fairly direct ; elaborate circumlocutions should be avoided. The 
conversational method is also especially valuable in assigning 
certain types of lessons to be studied. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES 

1. Adams, J. Exposition and Illustration in Teaching. (The Mac- 
millan Company, 1910.) Pp. 80-84 and 152-154. 

2. Bagley, W. C. The Educative Process. (The Macmillan Com- 
pany, 1905.) Pp. 273-274. 

3. Charters, W. W. Methods of Teaching. (Row, Peterson & Co., 
1912.) Pp. 270-277, 300-304, 307-310. 

4. McMuRRY. Method of the Recitation. (The Macmillan Com- 
pany, 1903.) Pp. 1 18-184. The most influential discussion of the con- 
versational method. 

5. Thorndike, E. L. Education, a Eirst Book. (The Macmillan 
Company, 191 2.) Pp. 188-196. 



CHAPTER XIX 

LABORATORY METHODS 

Main points of the chapter, i. Laboratory methods provide 
new real experiences as the basis for acquiring information or 
motor skill, or for carrying on reflective thinking. 

2. Teachers should exercise special care in selecting laboratory 
manuals that provide experimentation which is related to the general 
issues of practical life and to the interests of high-school students. 

3. The laboratory method is often a very uneconomical method 
of learning, and the substitution of lecture demonstrations for in- 
dividual experimentation is often justified. 

4. Skill in manipulation is relatively unimportant in most forms 
of high-school laboratory work. 

5. For training in reflective thinking, laboratory exercises should 
grow out of problems raised in discussions, and should not consist 
merely of following recipes or set directions. 

Laboratory methods may secure information, reflective 
thinking, and skiU. — Laboratory methods provide the sub- 
ject matter of instruction in the form of real present experi- 
ences for students. This practice contrasts with the previous 
methods which we have considered, in which the subject 
matter was derived from books or from the teacher, or from 
the/<2j/ real experiences of students. In the laboratory, real 
experiences are provided primarily for three purposes; namely, 
(i) for information secured through observation, (2) for the 
experimental solution of problems guided by reflective think- 
ing, (3) for the acquisition of skill in manipulation. 

I. Securing information through observation is predomi- 
nant in- the study of the structure of plants and animals in 
biological laboratories. It is also prominent in many processes 

449 



450 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

in chemical laboratories — for example, in learning what 
kinds of precipitates are formed with various solutions of 
salts and acids. 

2. The reflective solution of problems by experimentation 
is present in the study of problems in physics (for example, in 
work with pulleys) and in chemistry (for example, in qualita- 
tive analysis of unknown compounds). 

3. Acquiring skill in manipulation is prominent in the 
biological sciences in dissection, and in chemistry in the con- 
struction of apparatus and the management of such processes 
as precipitation, drying, weighing, distillation, etc. 

All of these purposes (namely, acquiring information 
through observation, solving problems, and acquiring skill 
in manipulation) are prominent in domestic science — for 
example, in the making of bread. 

Individual laboratory work a recent development. — His- 
torically the extensive adoption of individual laboratory work 
in high schools is a matter of relatively recent development. 
For example, concerning the introduction of laboratory exer- 
cises in physics Kester says : 

The laboratory feature of the secondary-school treatment was 
not introduced until late in the seventies ; . . . very few high schools 
pretended in 1880 to give any laboratory instruction to their stu- 
dents. Yet something of the spirit of the laboratory must have 
been in the air in those days, for when Gage's " Elements of 
Physics " appeared in the early eighties, fairly well imbued with 
the idea of individual experimentation, it acquired wide use and 
influence largely because of this feature. It was about this time 
(1886 by actual record) that Harvard College began to lead the 
colleges and universities of the country by an entrance requirement 
of laboratory instruction. The innovation was made in a very radi- 
cal manner. . . . The emphasis was laid almost wholly on labora- 
tory instruction, with litde apparent recognition of the fact that 
the outlook on the science, got from laboratory work alone, must 
be somewhat fragmentary ; there was not available the amount of 
time necessary for the large number of individual experiments 



LABORATORY METHODS 451 

which would cover the field satisfactorily. The change was too 
radical indeed; in 1897 Harvard modified its specifications as to the 
form of elementary physics which it would recognize, laying more 
stress upon text discussions and lecture demonstrations. (4 : 151) 

This quotation shows the recent development of laboratory 
work in high-school physics, and the influence of college- 
entrance requirements upon that work. A similar situation 
and development would be found to a considerable extent in 
the other sciences. The quotation also suggests the danger 
of abuse and overemphasis of laboratory exercises, which will 
be considered at greater length at other points in the chapter. 



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FIRST TYPE OF LABORATORY NOTEBOOK IN CHEMISTRY 

Approved report contains bare statement of results 

Exercise care in selecting laboratory manual. — The char- 
acter of the laboratory instructions which an inexperienced 
teacher gives will depend to a large extent upon the nature 
of the textbook and the laboratory manual which he uses ; 
hence great care should be exercised in choosing the latter, 
and the same methods should be followed as were described 
for the choosing of textbooks on page 421. The high-school 
teacher should avoid especially the danger of using the same 
type of manual as he used when a student in the university 
j:lasses. Some of the chief defects of high-school laboratory 



452 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

work have been due to the practice of carrying the highly 
speciahzed laboratory exercises of the university down into 
the courses for young students in high school. 

The accompanying illustrations show four methods of writ- 
ing up the results of experiments. The relative values of 
the four methods and other related questions are discussed 
by Greer in an article on the teaching of chemistry in high 
schools, from which the illustrations are taken (3). 



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SECOND TYPE OF LABORATORY NOTEBOOK IN CHEMISTRY 
Page subdivided for six phases of the report 

Sample suggestions concerning laboratory instruction. — In 
some of the books which deal with the teaching of the special 
sciences, suggestive directions for the organization of labora- 
tory work are found and should be read by prospective teachers 
of the subjects in question. As a brief example I quote the 
following from Mill's discussion of the teaching of chemistry: 

Suggestions as to laboratory work. — i . The laboratory course 
should be designed to increase the pupil's interest in his work, to 



LABORATORY METHODS 



453 








THIRD TYPE OF LABORATORY NOTEBOOK IN CHEMISTRY 
Topical report required as in the second type 



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FOURTH TYPE OF NOTEBOOK IN CHEMISTRY 

Independent formulation and interpretation by the student 



454 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

increase his power to see, think, and do for himself, and to make 
him acquainted with the chemicals, methods of manipulation, re- 
actions, and laws at first hand. 

2. Have the pupil keep a laboratory notebook, and insist on 
the use of reasonably good English, on neatness, and on clearness^ 
and that all entries shall be made when the experiment is performed. 
Full directions, some explanations, and questions are useful in the 
laboratory manual, but strictly guiding subheads are to be avoided. 
A loose-leaf system is an advantage. 

3. The attention of the teacher must be given repeatedly to 
each individual student while in the laboratory. 

4. Some problems should accompany the course in chemistry. 
These problems should always be practical and should be made 
more of a laboratory than a classroom exercise. 

5. Do not have much exact measurement. A student may meas- 
ure a thing exactly and know nothing about it ; in fact, his mind 
is easily diverted from the real problem to the mechanical details 
of the measurement. Some science courses have been aptly called 
"starvation courses in measurements." 

6. Sacrifice some of the experiments in the book for some more 
nearly " homemade." The added interest will repay the trouble. 

7. Make the student think, but do not expect him to rediscover 
chemical laws or to prove them. A little consideration of any law 
will probably show you that you could not, if turned loose in the 
best chemical laboratory in the country, prove the law in six months. 
Let the experiments illustrate the laws ; they will help the student 
to remember and to understand them. 

8. Sometimes the student gets more results than he can take 
care of. He may not select the one that you had in mind. Do not 
expect him always to drawj^(?z/r conclusion without your assistance 
from an experiment assigned hy you. (7 : 194-195) 

Principles of previous chapters apply. — Most of the prob- 
lems concerning the conduct of laboratory work fall under the 
general principles of instruction which we considered in previ- 
ous chapters. The most important of these principles for our 
present purpose are those concerning (i) the selection of sub- 
ject matter, (2) economy in management, (3) acquiring motor 



LABORATORY METHODS 455 

skill, (4) reflective thinking. We shall discuss briefly the applica- 
tion of these principles to the conduct of laboratory exercises. 
Adapt laboratory exercises to broader social needs. — The 
adaptation of the subject matter of laboratory instruction to 
the contemporary social needs of the various classes of stu- 
dents to be found in high schools would necessitate relating 
the experimentation very definitely to processes that play a 
large part in the practical affairs of ordinary people. In 
botany and zoology this would eliminate a large amount of 
the study of structure that has been so prominent in the 
past, and would lead to an emphasis upon the conditions of 
growth, physiological conditions, and the propagation, care, 
and uses of the plants and animals. In physics it would re- 
sult in the emphasis upon experimentation with machines, 
with simple electrical devices such as bells and telephones, 
with practical applications of heat, etc. In chemistry, em- 
phasis would fall upon the reproduction in miniature of 
important industrial processes. In all of these sciences the 
relations to agriculture often furnish important points of con- 
tact. In domestic science there is at present little danger of 
the experimentation being unrelated to social needs, although 
in some schools a student is required to struggle through 
several relatively unrelated courses in chemistry and other 
sciences before she is permitted to begin any experimental 
manipulation of food materials. 

. Exercise care in selection fro'in snperabundance of material. 
— The problem of relative values as applied to the teaching 
of science has already been illustrated in the choice between 
quantitative and qualitative studies in physics (see above, 
p. 71). To be sure, the use of the instruments of measure- 
ment employed in physical research would have some value for 
students, but the greater value of other activities is suggested 
by Hoadley in the following quotation : 

With a superabundance of excellent material within the scope 
of elementary physics, there would seem to be no valid reason for 



456 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

spending the first days in the laboratory on manipulation and meas- 
urement with vernier and micrometer calipers, the diagonal scale, 
the spherometer, etc., as is sometimes done with no physics in sight. 

The more simply and directly a physical problem is presented 
to the pupil the better, that his thoughts and attention may not be 
diverted from the real point at issue. This principle is especially 
applicable in the early part of the laboratory course, where it is 
most frequently and most seriously violated by the use of micro- 
metric instruments, the Jolly balance, etc., in the work on density 
and specific gravity, even before the pupil has had practice in the 
simpler methods of measuring and weighing. It would seem as if 
the express purpose of such work were at the outset to throw as 
many obstacles in the way of progress in physics as the ingenuity 
of teachers and instrument-makers could devise. 

Perhaps the most striking illustration of what should not be 
done in this respect is afforded by the familiar quantitative experi- 
ments on the breaking strength of wires and on elasticity of 
stretching, bending, and twisting. These experiments lead ab- 
solutely to nothing in most high-school courses. The laws with 
which they deal are, for the most part, not considered in elemen- 
tary textbooks. (10: 15-16) 

The same type of argument would apply to all the other 
sciences in which there is an equal superabundance of mate- 
rial with equal necessity of exercising care in the selection 
of laboratory exercises that are relatively the most valuable. 

Relate experifnentation to a fezv large topics or problems. 
— The desirability of emphasizing a few large topics in ex- 
perimentation is set forth by Mann as follows, with particular 
reference to physics : 

Experience has taught us that the average teacher of physics is 
liable to err in requiring the class to study too many topics and do 
too many experiments. The result of such an error is that the pupils 
become confused and also acquire careless habits in the use of the 
apparatus and the making of measurements. (4 : 175) 

Not only is there danger of developing poor habits of ex- 
perimentation when there are so many experiments, but there 



LABORATORY METHODS 457 

is danger that the thought aspect of the work will be neglected 
altogether and the laboratory activity become a mere matter 
of hurried manipulation. 

Adapt to needs, iiiterests, and capacities of stitdeitts . — The 
arrangement of the subject matter for laboratory work in terms 
of the needs, interests, and capacities of the high-school stu- 
dents has already been emphasized in the discussion of the 
course in general science on pages 85-92, and need not be 
further elaborated here. 

Economy would often justify substitution of lecture dem- 
onstrations. — The second general principle which has an 
important bearing upon laboratory teaching is the principle 
of economy in classroom management. The application has 
already been made on page 35. Apart from the matter of 
economy in arrangement and manipulation of materials, how- 
ever, there is always a larger question of economy ; namely, 
whether the same real experiences could not be given more 
economically and effectively by having the teacher or a com- 
mittee of capable students demonstrate the experiments before 
the class. In many cases, where observation and reflective 
thinking about real situations is more important than acquir- 
ing skill in manipulation, the demonstration is much superior 
to individual laboratory work. The time that is used by in- 
dividual pupils in setting up apparatus could often be used 
to much greater advantage in reflective thought based on 
observation. In emphasizing this point Thorndike says : 

Like any reform in education, the laboratory method has suffered 
at the hands of its friends, by being used indiscriminately and by 
being overused. It is not scientific to spend two hours in learning 
by manipulation of instruments something which could be better 
learned in two minutes by thought. Washing bottles, connecting 
electric wires, and putting away test tubes, though doubtless useful 
tasks in connection with scientific housewifery, are not magical 
sources of intellectual growth. Nor is it safe to disregard what is 
taught, so long as it is taught as an exercise in scientific method. 



458 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

A laboratory should teach facts important in themselves. It is dis- 
astrous to scientific habits in the young for them to find repeatedly 
that elaborate experimental work brings at the end some trivial or 
meaningless result (9: 178) 

Avoid highly specialized forms of motor skill. — The acqui- 
sition of skill in manipulating special forms of apparatus and 
special materials is important in some sciences for some 
pupils, but not so important in others. Thus, the manipulation 
of dough for bread or for pie crust is an important factor in 
learning how to make these materials, which is one of the 
important aims of the laboratory work in domestic science. 
In other cases, however, the type of manipulation required 
in the laboratory is so highly specialized that it will probably 
not be used by many of the students outside of the classroom 
— for example, bending and blowing glass, which is a factor in 
chemical laboratories, and dissection, which is a factor in bio- 
logical laboratories. It is a mistake to overemphasize in high 
school such laboratory exercises as require a type of manual 
skill that will seldom be used elsewhere by most of the students. 

Student' s zmderstanding may greatly exceed his skill. — 
Furthermore, a student may understand the principles of a 
machine or of the operation of a piece of apparatus and still 
be very deficient in ability to manipulate them. For example, 
in college I succeeded fairly well in the theoretical part of a 
course in organic chemistry, but the apparatus which I con- 
structed for making organic preparations was the laughing- 
stock of the laboratory. Similarly, I had no difficulty with 
the principles and problems of magnetism and electricity, but 
a dynamo was always for me simply a terrible, confused tangle 
of wires, the actual construction of which I never mastered. 

Principles of practice reqidi^e carefid supervision of ma7iipu- 
lation. — If certain forms of motor skill are to be acquired 
in the laboratory, however, the general principles laid down 
in Chapters VI and VIII on motor skill and practice should 
be applied. It is especially important that the teacher give 



LABORATORY METHODS 459 

all the time that he possibly can to getting individual students 
started right in their construction, dissection, or drawing. 
This is important not only from the standpoint of avoiding ^ 
the beginning of bad habits but also from the standpoint of 
saving the student's time. The laboratory teacher should be 
especially skilled in making suggestions and asking questions. 
He should be present and actually instructing individuals all 
the time. We need the same corrective for unsupervised, 
undirected laboratory work as is involved in the substitution 
of supervised study for home study. The same type of skill 
in teaching is required for the proper supervision of labora- 
tory work as for the supervision of individuals who are study- 
ing (see p. 412). 

For reflective thinking laboratory exercises must grow out 
of problems. — - The consideration of laboratory methods from 
the standpoint of the extent to which they involve reflective 
thinking by the students is the most important aspect of the 
topic, since laboratory exercises are supposed to contribute 
essentially to the reflective, scientific study of the subject in 
which they are found. That laboratory exercises commonly 
fail to do this is asserted by Dewey in the following quotation : 

A student may acquire laboratory methods as so much isolated 
and final stuff, just as he may so acquire material from a textbook. 
One's mental attitude is not necessarily changed just because he 
engages in certain physical manipulations and handles certain tools 
and materials. . . . This problem of turning laboratory technique 
to intellectual account is even more pressing than that of utilization 
of information derived from books. Almost every teacher has had 
drummed into him the inadequacy of mere book instruction, but the 
conscience of most is quite at peace if only pupils are put through 
some laboratory exercises. (1 : 125) 

Follozving recipes is not scientific experimentation. — If a 
teacher will consider for a moment the part played by experi- 
mentation in scientific procedure, he will realize that the ordi- 
nary laboratory exercises do not bear anything like the same 



46o TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

sort of relation to the student's thinking. In scientific inves- 
tigations the scientist who is at work upon some problem 
advances some theory or hypothesis to solve it, and in order 
to test or verify the hypothesis sometimes devises experiments 
which will do so. That is, he says, '' Probably such and such 
a factor is the one I am searching for ; let me produce it 
under certain definite controlled conditions and see if the ex- 
pected results follow." How different this general process is 
from the activity of the student who is carrying out certain 
directions for manipulating apparatus and materials, just as 
a cook would proceed to follow a new recipe. Like the cook 
the student acquires some information and some skill in 
manipulation ; but if he is to do any scientific thinking, his 
laboratory practice should develop as a means of assisting in 
the solution of problems. 

Freely merge discussion, laboratory exercises, and interpre- 
tation. — Obviously, high-school students cannot be expected 
to discover the hypotheses and the experiments for verifying 
them that it took expert scientific specialists years to discover. 
It is possible, however, to introduce laboratory exercises in a 
way that will require more reflective thinking than commonly 
occurs in the ordinary recipe-following method. A suggestion 
of how this may be done in physics is contained in the fol- 
lowing quotation from a discussion by Professor Mann. 

It is generally better to introduce a topic by means of informal 
discussion with the class concerning familiar experiences. For ex- 
ample, if the topic is specific gravity, the knowledge already in the 
possession of the class should first be called forth by means of 
questions concerning their experiences with floating and sinking of 
such familiar things as their own bodies, chips, corks, logs, cream, 
ice, stones, nails, lead keels, fishing sinkers, etc. 

When the principle or idea under discussion has been brought 
out by such discussion, it should be defined or demonstrated by 
one or more experiments and then fixed by requiring the solution 
of a number of simple, real, concrete problems. If the class work 



LABORATORY METHODS 461 

has been skillfully conducted, a number of problems or disputes 
will have arisen of a sort that can be settled only by making 
experiments and measurements. 

The laboratory is the place in which to settle such problems and 
disputes. In the ideal case the results of each laboratory experi- 
ment will solve some problem or settle some dispute-j'^nd the more 
concrete and significant the problem or the dispute, the greater the 
value of the work. For example, the pupils will probably get much 
more valuable training from the laboratory work in specific gravity 
if they be shown first a rectangular block of oak and be asked who 
can predict how high it will float out of the water, than if the ex- 
periment is presented in the usual way, namely, '' Find the specific 
gravity of a rectangular solid body lighter than water." In the first 
case a problem is presented, measurement is required for its solu- 
tion, and the competitive sense is appealed to ; in the second case 
there is no problem that has any significance to the pupils. 

When the laboratory is used as a court of appeal where disputed 
points can be settled, the work there helps to fix in mind and to 
clarify principles, besides giving discipline in scientific thinking; 
but when it is used merely to determine the specific gravity of a 
body heavier than water, or that of a body lighter than water with 
.a sinker, or of a liquid with a pycnometer, or of a liquid by Hare's 
method, etc., the work tends to give training in little besides the 
technique of the physicist. The work of the high school is to edu- 
cate boys and girls, not to train research physicists. 
• Since the laboratory is the place to solve problems that cannot 
be solved without experiment and measurement, the most fruitful 
type of experiment is the one whose result is not known in ad- 
vance. The attempt to determine physical constants whose values 
are known with far greater accuracy than it is possible to hope 
for in an elementary laboratory is, to say the least, discouraging. 
Thus, the theoretical mechanical advantage of an inclined plane or 
of a set of pulleys is known in advance ; but the actual efficiency 
of a given plane or pulley is not known but depends on how the 
machines are handled. If the student is asked "What is the 
greatest efficiency of this inclined plane ? Is it greater with large 
load or with small load ? '' he will probably get far more real 
training from his work than he will if asked to '' verify the law of 



462 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

the inclined plane." In the former case he has a problem to solve, 
and the solution depends on what he is able to make the plane do ; 
in the latter case he has to make his results tally with the theory. 
Other similar problems that lead to significant and valuable 
laboratory work are : What is the maximum efficiency of a small 
water motor ? Which kind of gas burner is most efficient on cook 
stoves ? Which boy's electric motor is most efficient ? How much 
more efficient is a tungsten lamp than a carbon lamp ? What kind 
of lens shall I get for a camera for making pictures for lantern 
slides? (4: 171-173) 

This quotation suggests the desirability of closely connect- 
ing the laboratory exercises with the general class discussion 
of a topic. Where it is possible to administer it, the discus- 
sions, laboratory exercises, and further interpretative dis- 
cussions should merge into each other freely. If this is 
done, the experimentation can be arranged at the psycho- 
logical moment instead of falling upon separate laboratory 
days. Such close correlation of discussion and experimenta- 
tion does not mean that the teacher would put the class to 
work on exercises without having the laboratory materials 
definitely prepared and in order. It does mean, however, 
that definitely planned discussions, which raise certain defi- 
nite problems, would precede the definitely planned labora- 
tory exercises, and that the first ten minutes of a period might 
be spent in discussions, the next twenty minutes in experi- 
ments, and the next ten minutes in further interpretative dis- 
cussions. Sometimes these discussions might be carried on 
with the whole class, sometimes with a small group while 
the rest of the class continued experimenting, and sometimes 
with individuals. 

Apply pj'evioiLS cJiapter coticeiniing acqidring abstract ideas. 
— Sometimes laboratory exercises are arranged primarily to 
acquaint students with certain phenomena as the basis of 
understanding new abstract terms, such as acceleration^ acid 
and base, osmosis, etc. In such instruction the general 



LABORATORY METHODS 463 

principles discussed in connection with the acquiring of ab- 
stract and general ideas should be applied and should be 
reviewed at this time (see pp. 205-225). 

Conclusion of discussion of laboratory methods. — This 
will conclude our brief discussion of a few aspects of the 
laboratory method. The general enthusiasm for laboratory 
work has often blinded teachers to the fact that it commonly 
wastes a great deal of time in processes of routine manipula- 
tion which give the students little useful information and no 
training in scientific thinking. If the latter are to be secured, 
the experimentation should grow out of discussions of prob- 
lems that are related to practical issues in the world at large, 
and interpretative discussions should be closely connected 
with all experiments and observations. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES 

1. Dewey, Johx. Science as Subject Matter and as Method. 
Science^ January 28, 1910, N.S., Vol. XXXI, pp. 121-127. Empha- 
sizes securing reflective thinking in laboratory exercises instead of merely 
routine manipulation. 

2. Dewey, Johx. How We Think. (D. C. Heath & Co., 1910.) 
Pp. 150-156. Shows part played by experimentation in scientific in- 
quiry. 

3. Greer, W. C. The Teaching of Chemistry in Secondary Schools. 
School Review, 1906, Yo\. XIV, pp. 282-286. Discusses laboratory note- 
books. 

4. Kester, F. E. Physics, in C. H. Johnson's High-School Educa- 
tion. (Charles Scribner's Sons, 1912.) Pp. 146-182, 478-481. Contains 
bibliography. 

5. Lloyd, F. E., and Bigelow, M. A. The Teaching of Biology. 
(Longmans, Green & Co., 1904.) Pp. 209-228, 294-319. Contains many 
general suggestions applicable in other sciences. 

6. Maxx, C. R. The Teaching of Physics. (The Macmillan Com- 
pany, 191 2.) Pp. 246-269. Contains many suggestions based on Dewey's 
theories of teaching. 

7. Mills, J. E. Chemistry, in C. H. Johnson's High-School Edu- 
cation. (Charles Scribner's Sons, 1912.) Pp. 183-197, 481-484. Con- 
tains bibliography. 



464 TEACHING' IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

8. Stevens, R. Stenographic Reports of High-School Lessons. 
Teachers College Record^ September, 1910, Vol. XI, pp. 265-276. 
Report of a domestic science lesson. 

9. Thorndike, E. L. Education. (The Macmillan Company, 

1912.) Pp. 1 75-179' 193-196- 

10. WoODHULL, J. F. The Teaching of Physical Science. Teachers 
College Record^ January, 1910, Vol. XI, pp. 1-82. Excellent discussion 
of studying important practical issues in physics. Contains quotations 
from prefaces of many physics textbooks concerning place of labora- 
tory work. 



CHAPTER XX 

THE ART OF QUESTIONING 

Main points of the chapter. — i . Skilled questioning demands of 
the teacher clear and rapid thinking, a keen sense of relative values, 
and ability in wording questions. 

2. Many points in the technique of questioning depend upon re- 
garding the recitation as primarily a place for group thought, not as 
a place for the pursuit or prolonged assistance of individual students. 

3. For routine drills, such as those in algebra and the study of 
a foreign language, devices should be adopted that will speed up 
the process, while for recitations involving reflective thinking, slow, 
thoughtful questioning should prevail. 

4. In general, teachers should avoid practices in questioning 
that do not place a premium upon concentrated attention by all 
members of the class. Many devices and mannerisms come under 
this head. 

A few special points of technique to supplement previous 
principles. — The art of questioning is an important factor in 
all types of recitations as well as in the directions prepared as 
guides to studying or to the interpretation of laboratory exer- 
cises. In conversational methods skilled questioning is the 
most important element in securing educative results, while 
in recitations based upon assigned readings there are large 
opportunities to secure superior results through skilled ques- 
tioning which stimulates interpretation, evaluation, and appli- 
cation of the points studied in the assignments. Skill in 
questioning will depend to a very large extent upon the 
efficiency with which the teacher applies the general prin- 
ciples previously discussed, but there are a few special points 
of technique which we shall discuss briefly in this chapter. 

465 



466 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

The use of questions to test whether students have pre- 
pared or mastered certain material may be distinguished from 
questioning which is intended to stimulate and guide their 
thinking along new lines. To do either of these well requires 
special skill. The principles governing the stimulation and 
direction of reconstructive thinking by students have been 
thoroughly discussed, particularly in the chapter on reflective 
thinking and in the one on self-activity and apperception. 
The special technique of testing will be discussed in a later 
chapter. In view of these facts we shall not provide here 
special discussions from each of these points of view. 

Skilled questioning demands rapid adaptation on part of 
teacher. — A teacher who is conducting a recitation is in a 
very complicated situation and is adapting his responses to a 
great many rapidly changing elements. This is true even when 
he is merely conducting an oral quiz to determine whether 
assigned readings have been mastered. The situation is 
vastly more complicated when he is conducting a recitation 
that permits or requires a large amount of reconstructive or 
original thinking by the students. He never knows just what 
move to expect ; hence he must be constantly alert and quick 
to devise appropriate questions. 

Pedagogical experts are apt to be overcritical of the ques- 
tioning that is done in recitations which they have observed. 
From the calm and peaceful positions in their pedagogical 
armchairs they show how it could have been improved in 
this way and in that. Such criticisms often fail to take ac- 
count of the complicated series of rapidly shifting responses 
which a teacher has to give if he is really making the lesson 
go. Speaking as one who has never been able to develop any 
inside feeling of self-possession before a class, I would say 
that much of the questioning which is held up to severe criti- 
cism when viewed in a stenographic report appears to me to 
be very good when considered in the light of the rapid shift- 
ing of attention and emphasis that the teacher was required 



THE ART OF QUESTIONING 467 

to make as the responses of the students came forth. Such 
a view, however, does not justify regarding questioning care- 
lessly, but, on the contrary, tends to emphasize the necessity 
of the most careful study of the art of questioning. 

Requires clear thinking, sense of relative values, and skill 
in wording questions. — Among the chief elements at the 
basis of a teacher's success in questioning are the follow- 
ing : ( I ) clear and rapid thinking, (2) a constant feeling for 
relative values, and (3) skill in expression, particularly in 
wording questions. 

1 . Clear a7id rapid thinking. — Clear thinking in a given 
line may be attained by many teachers if they become suffi- 
ciently well acquainted with the subject. Unfortunately, how- 
ever, some persons always remain muddled, tangled thinkers, 
no matter how much they know ; they always fail to make 
clear-cut distinctions, comparisons, and classifications. As a 
consequence they will always be relatively poor questioners. 
When we add rapidity to the requirement of clearness in 
thinking, many more persons are eliminated from the possi- 
bility of achieving great success in conducting recitations. 
Slozv, clear thinkers might prepare excellent written ques- 
tions or directions for studying or for interpreting laboratory 
exercises, but in many recitations they would get relatively 
poor results. 

2. Sense of relative values. — A keen sense for relative 
values enables the self-possessed teacher to determine quickly, 
with a nice discrimination, just what use to make of each 
answer or response given in a recitation. Shall it be empha- 
sized and followed up, or merely accepted but passed over, or 
criticized but modified so as to lead on to something more 
valid ? Here again thorough knowledge of the related field 
helps in achieving success, though many fail who have vast 
knowledge but little sense of relative values and possibilities. 

3 . Skill in woi^ding questions. — Skill in expression is 
especially important in the wording of questions. A teacher 



468 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

may have the other two quahfications, namely, rapid, clear 
thinking and a sense of relative values, and fail to word 
questions well. A person may even be an excellent lecturer 
and still be a poor questioner, which shows that skill not 
merely in expression but in a special kind of expression, 
namely, the wording of questions, is necessary. Such skill 
requires not only clear thinking and a good command of 
language, but also the ability to estimate quickly just what is 
the condition of the student's mind and just what stimulus 
is needed to set it operating in a certain direction. 

Thus we see that skill in questioning in recitations requires 
all of the preparation and alertness that a teacher can bring to 
bear upon the situation. Preparation can easily be provided 
for, but alertness is more a matter of fundamental tempera- 
ment, though it can be cultivated to a certain extent. Prepara- 
tion of questions in advance of the recitation is one of the 
chief points in the planning of lessons ; this will be discussed 
in a later chapter. 

The recitation as a place for group progress determines 
technique. — Several of the special points of technique in ques- 
tioning depend upon regarding recitations primarily as periods 
for gro7ip thought and group progress, the periods of super- 
vised study being primarily the places for individical thought 
and progress and for assisting individual pupils in their 
peculiar difficulties. If this distinction is kept in mind, a 
number of detailed considerations may be easily disposed of. 

Address qitestions to the g7^oiLp. — In the first place, ques- 
tions should be addressed to the whole group, and the whole 
group should be expected to take an interest in replying and 
endeavoring to get ready to reply. The opposite condition is 
very common, where each question is addressed to an indi- 
vidual pupil whose name is given before the question is asked. 
Thus, in college and high-school classes many teachers, who 
are quite proud of themselves but who have no correct ideas 
of method, proceed as follows : '' Now, Mr. Smith, what is the 



THE ART OF QUESTIONING 469 

difference between," etc. Mr. Smith then braces himself for 
the attack, while the. rest of the students look on and enjoy 
his discomfiture, with no thought that they are responsible 
for thinking up answers to the questions addressed to poor 
Smith. Needless to say, the question should be propounded, 
then sufficient time given for part of the group to get the 
necessary thinking done, and then some student called upon 
to answer. • 

Do not call iipon studejits in fixed order. — The same 
principle would rule out the practice of -^calling upon students 
in a fixed order. Yet many instructors follow the order in 
which students are seated, or -iji which the names come in a 
class list or upon class cards. If the teacher can't do any 
better, he can at least put the names on cards and shuffle 
these before each recitation. This will provide a definite 
chance basis until a number of students have been called 
upon. Occasional calling upon some of these for a second 
time during the recitation would tend to keep students from 
relapsing after they have had their first turn by chance. 

Secure fair distrihiition of questions by some device. — 
Furthermore, in order that all members of the class may 
feel that they are expected to participate at all stages of the 
recitation, the teacher must take care to avoid calling upon 
a few students too often and neglecting others. Unless the 
teacher is especially self-possessed or adopts some device 
which specifically checks this tendency, it is difficult to 
avoid it. For example, Breslich reports that a college student 
who was observing mathematics classes in a high school was 

directed to keep a record of the number of times each pupil of a 
class was called upon to recite during a number of days, omitting 
recitations where all pupils went to the blackboard or where the 
whole class was called on to recite in order. It was found that in 
a first-year class of twenty-two pupils one student recited [that is, 
was called upon to recite] only twice^ and another eleve7i times, in 
nine days. ... In a first-year class of thirteen pupils one pupil was 



470 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

questioned only /our times and another eighteen times. In a second- 
year class of fifteen pupils the range was from six to twenty-three 
recitations during ten days. (7 : 153) 



Personally I have considerable difficulty in avoiding this 
tendency to see some students and to overlook others. My 
best device for avoiding it is to look over my list of students 
when I am preparing for the recitation, and to make written 
note of those that ought to be called upon. If this memoran- 
dum is kept in sight during the recitation, it tends to remind 
me to distribute the questions properly. 

Do not waste class time assisting or pursimig individuals. 
— As noted above, the time of the class should not be wasted 
while the teacher helps a slow pupil who has some peculiar 
difficulty. This assistance should be given during a period 
for supervised study. Similarly, class time should not be 
wasted while the teacher pursues an individual student with 
questions. If it is a small difficulty which is delaying a stu- 
dent who might otherwise continue his recitation satisfac- 
torily, let some other student or the teacher help him out 
with a word. In violation of this rule I have seen a most 
capable teacher delay a whole class for five minutes while 
he tried to elicit an answer from one student. Despite the 
frantic appeals of all of the other students to be permitted to 
recite, the teacher said, '' No, let James get it," sincerely be- 
lieving that this was a fine exhibition of true pedagogical skill 
instead of its being just the opposite. 

Adapt commendation and reproval to individual differences. 
— The proper distribution of commendation and reproval for 
the answers of individual students calls for fine discrimina- 
tion and tact on the part of the teacher. Thus, a purely im- 
personal remark such as ''That's the point," coming after 
a puzzling discussion of a difficult question, may be treasured 
by a conscientious, timid student for a long time and stimu- 
late him to further endeavor, while in the case of a slow, 



THE ART OF QUESTIONING 471 

conscientious, sensitive student who has missed the point of a 
question such an off-hand remark as " Wake up " may rankle 
for hours. On the other hand, a lazy, callous student may 
require severe reproval. For example, I heard an instructor 
appropriately stimulate a lazy, inattentive student who had 
given a careless answer, by saying, '' Mr. Smith, what was 
the question I asked you ? Now, what relation does your 
answer bear to the question ? What was the general point 
which we were discussing before I called on you .? That will 
do ; sit down and see that you keep track of the discussion 
hereafter." Smith needed about as vigorous a reminder as 
could be given him, and his temperament was such that no 
hard feelings were created by the teacher's rebuke. Thus we 
see that large consideration should be given to individual 
differences in bestowing commendation and reproval. In 
many cases nothing more is needed than perfectly objective 
evaluation of the answers given. This evaluation may be 
determined by their acceptance or rejection by the teacher 
or by the class. If we accept the point of view expressed by 
Dewey, quoted above on page 202, acceptance or rejection by 
the teacher should play a smaller part than it commonly does 
in recitations, and greater emphasis should be placed upon 
having the class determine the value and validity of answers 
and suggestions. 

Rapid pace for drill questions ; slow pace for thought 
questions. — The number of questions asked and the amount 
of time given for answering vary with the nature of the mental 
activity which is being carried on. In the case of oral drills 
on vocabularies and on short, abstract problems in algebra the 
pace should be very rapid. In the case of reflective, analyt- 
ical study of a question in civics or chemistry the pace should 
be very slow. There is room for improvement in both types 
of exercises. In rapid drills the use of flash cards as described 
above on page 160 provides for great improvement. In the 
case of reflective thinking the necessity of a slower pace is 



4/2 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

emphasized by Miss Stevens, who has speciaUzed upon the 
investigation of questioning. She says : 

If the purpose of the question is to provoke thought and evoke 
expression, can the result be other than negative when a teacher 
of history in one class period of forty minutes asks one hundred 
and fifty questions and gets one hundred and fifty answers, with 
an average of more than three questions and three answers per 
minute ? With such breakneck speed what chance can there be for 
assimilation or association of ideas and for orderly expression ? 
(4: 7) 

Repetition in questioning. As a general ride avoid repeti- 
tion of questions. — In order to avoid inattention, questions 
should not be repeated, as a general rule, if they are v/ell 
worded in the first statement. Sometimes, however, the teacher 
can tell, from the general puzzled expression upon the faces 
of even the most attentive members of the class, that the 
question has not aroused the response expected. This may 
be due to the fact that the form of the question is poor. In 
view of the difficulty of wording good questions this is likely 
to happen now and then during the stress of a recitation. 
Under these circumstances the best thing to do is to repeat 
the question in an improved form. Sometimes, if the initial 
form of the question is good but the question is very diffi- 
cult, the teacher may repeat it without modification, just as a 
lecturer repeats an important statement that he wants to em- 
phasize or as a person rereads a difficult sentence in a book 
in order to get its full meaning. Obviously such repetition 
should be avoided in easy routine questioning that calls for 
little reflective thinking, and it should be infrequent in all 
questioning. 

Repetition of pjpiV s ansiverby teacher is a badmannensm. 
— Many teachers fall into the habit of repeating the answers 
given by students ; this is a harmful mannerism and should 
be corrected. Very often it is largely a case of thinking out 



THE ART OF QUESTIONING 4/3 

loud ; that is, while turning the answer over in mind the 
teacher repeats it automatically, at the same time getting 
ready for the question that is to be based upon the repeated 
answer. This also tends to give the discussion a somewhat 
more continuous appearance, since the waits which usually 
occur while the teacher thinks up the next question are filled 
by his automatic repetition of the preceding answer. To avoid 
the danger of encouraging the students to be inattentive 
to the one who is answering, however, the teacher should 
refrain from repeating the answers. In rapid routine ques- 
tioning the waits are or should be eliminated by the speed 
of the process, while in reflective questioning and thinking the 
waiting and pondering by both pupils and teacher are appro- 
priate if all are seriously concerned with the problem in hand. 
Yes-or-no questions to be avoided tmless reflective attitudes 
prevail. — It is sometimes stated that questions which can be 
answered by yes or no should be avoided. Like many of the 
other conventional rules concerning questioning, this rule is 
based upon the general conception that questioning is used 
only to test a student's knowledge, and upon situations in 
which the teacher is trying to trap the student and the student 
is skirmishing to avoid being caught. In reflective question- 
ing and discussion in high-school and college classes the 
yes-or-no question is very commonly used effectively if accom- 
panied by the question, Why } or by the direction, '' Give 
reasons for your answer." For examples turn to pages 172 
and 210 and examine the questions quoted there from the 
textbook on economics, in which the instruction is given 
largely through questions. Many of the questions quoted are 
yes-or-no questions, but I think the general verdict would be 
that the effect of the questions is to stimulate a reflective 
consideration of the meaning of the topics under discussion ; 
namely, of wealth and of the influence of specialization. 

Conclusion of discussion of questioning. — In our brief con- 
sideration of the technique of questioning we emphasized as 



474 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

a fundamental fact the necessity of thorough preparation and 
alertness on the part of the teacher who expects to carry on 
effective questioning in such complicated social situations as 
rapid or thoughtful recitations present. To succeed, he needs 
clear thinking, a keen sense of relative values, and skill in 
expressing questions. The recitation should be regarded as 
primarily a place for group thought, and many of the details 
of the technique of questioning should be determined by this 
attitude. The pace should be adapted to the type of mental 
activity which is desired, and all practices which place a pre- 
mium upon inattention should be avoided. Under this head 
come a multitude of specific precepts which thoughtful teachers 
should review occasionally and apply to their practice. 



BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES 

1. Bagley, W. C. The Educative Process. (The Macmillan Com- 
pany, 1905.) Pp. 320, 323-327, 334- 

2. Charters, W. W. Methods of Teaching. (Row, Peterson, & Co., 
1912.) Pp. 296-313. A chapter on questioning. 

3. De Garmo, C. Ijiteixst i7i Education. (The Macmillan Com- 
pany, 1902.) Pp. 179-204. Long, detailed chapter on questioning. 

4. Stevens, Romiett. The Questio7i as a Measure of Efficiency 
in Instrtiction. (Teachers College, 191 2.) An excellent descriptive and 
critical study of current practices. 

5. Strayer, G. D. The Teaching Process. (The Macmillan Com- 
pany, 191 1.) Pp. 114-128. A chapter on questioning. 

6. Yamada, Saschichi. A study of questioning. Pedagogical Sem- 
inary, June, 1913, Vol. XX, pp. 129-186. Bibliography, pp. 181-183. 

Quoted incidentally in the chapter. — 7. Breslich, E. R. Teaching 
High-School Pupils How to Study. School Review., October, 191 2, 
Vol. XX, pp. 505-515. 



CHAPTER XXI 

PRACTICE TEACHING AND LESSON-PLANNING 

Main points of the chapter, i . Practice teaching should be care- 
fully administered to secure large profit from a small amount of 
practice. 

2. The general principles of practice should be applied. The 
most important of these are the following : 

a. It is desirable to secure a correct start ; hence careful plan- 
ning is necessary. 

b. Distributed practice is better than concentrated practice. 

3. Carefully written lesson plans should provide for the separate 
mastery of subject matter and method. 

4. A carefully organized brief is a most important factor in 
mastering and organizing subject matter. 

5. The writing out of pivotal questions is an important step in 
the method plan. 

6. Thoroughly organized routine and mimeographed or printed 
directions facilitate the very difficult process of supervising practice 
teaching. 

Practice teaching with adolescent pupils to be provided. — 

In order that prospective teachers may be trained to think of 
teaching in terms of sound principles of method, it is highly 
desirable that some practice teaching under expert super- 
vision should be provided for students in colleges and normal 
schools who expect to teach in high schools. There is very 
little provision in America for such practice at the present 
time (19 1 4), but it is being organized in a number of univer- 
sities, and in a few decades we may expect to see much more 
adequate facilities. In normal schools, practice teaching is 
provided on a large scale for prospective elementary-school 

475 



4/6 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

teachers, and the same type of arrangement should be made 
in Uberal-arts colleges and universities for prospective high- 
school teachers. Most practice schools for such teachers 
should probably be organized to enroll pupils from about 
twelve to eighteen years of age, that is, during the period 
that is coming to be recognized as the proper period for 
secondary or adolescent education. 

Prerequisites inchtde training' in subject matter and in 
education. — Owing to the limited facilities for high-school 
practice teaching that will probably always prevail, and to 
the desirability of administering the teaching as efficiently 
as possible, it should be restricted to college seniors who 
meet certain prerequisites. These should include several 
college courses in the subject to be taught, one of which 
is a course in the teaching of the subject that has been 
accompanied by observation in the high school. The pre- 
requisites should also include certain courses in the depart- 
ment of education. Every practice teacher should be under 
strict supervision and should not be permitted to undertake 
to teach a series of lessons until it is clear that he is thor- 
oughly prepared not only in general but also for the particular 
series of lessons and particular class that he is to teach. A 
class of high-school students is not material with which an 
irresponsible, unprepared individualist should be permitted 
to experiment. As indicated in the chapter on classroom 
management, there is ample scope for the expression of spon- 
taneity, individuality, and reasoning within a well-controlled, 
routinized system (see above, pp. 27-31). 

Emphasize jjidgment aspects more than routine aspects. — 
In connection with practice teaching we may utilize to advan- 
tage Bagley's distinction between the routine diVid jicdgmeiit 
aspects of teaching, as we have already done in connection 
with classroom management (see pp. 26-27). The ivjitine as- 
pects — that is, the recurring and relatively unvarying details 
of management — are very important in securing economy 



PRACTICE TEACHING AND PLANNING 47/ 

of time and effort, but they can easily be mastered in a 
relatively short time by the teacher who has had his attention 
focused on the necessity of so doing. The judgment aspects 
are those teaching processes which are peculiarly concerned 
with directing the various types of learning so that they will 
proceed most economically and effectively. In contrast with 
the routine aspects the judgment aspects in practice teaching 
present a most varied and complicated series of ideas and 
principles of method to be mastered theoretically and to be 
used practically in the development of habits of teaching. It 
becomes evident from this contrast that the routine aspects 
could be mastered with comparative ease by a beginning 
teacher, although it might take several months to make the 
routine practices habitual. On the other hand, efficient ap- 
plication of the principles of learning in the instruction of 
various types of students calls for much greater skill and re- 
sourcefulness and requires a much longer period for mastery. 
This contrast should determine the relative emphasis in the 
organization of practice teaching. In the routine aspects the 
practice teacher should be given a correct start, as in any 
other kind of practice, but in the supervision the critic should 
not stress this phase to the neglect of the judgment aspects, 
which present a much larger range of possibilities with which 
to familiarize the prospective teacher. The emphasis should 
fall rather upon the methods of selecting, organizing, and 
presenting subject matter, of organizing proper practices in 
learning, of securing spontaneous interest and concentration 
of attention, and of supervising study suggestively without 
too much assisting, and upon methods of asking questions 
and actually conducting recitations of various types. 

Apply general principles of practice. Assure a correct start. 
■ — The general principles of practice set forth in Chapter VIII 
should be applied to practice in teaching as far as practi- 
cable. The first principle that applies is the importance of se- 
curing a correct start. As far as possible the student should 



4/8 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

be prevented from beginning to use incorrect or wasteful 
methods. We have already noted the importance of this 
point from the standpoint of protecting the pupils who are 
being practiced upon, and we now reiterate it from the stand- 
point of effective training of the practice teacher himself. 
One of the most important factors in securing a correct start 
is careful planning, which will be discussed below. 

Distributed periods of practice a7'e better. — The next 
question in applying the general principles of practice to 
practice in teaching concerns the best distribution of the 
time that is available for each practice teacher. After prac- 
tice teaching becomes the regular requirement for prospective 
high-school teachers, the facilities which can be made avail- 
able will permit only a limited amount of practice by each 
student. Let us assume that it will be possible for him to 
teach only forty lessons. In view of the experimental data 
given above on pages 1 61-164, what would be the best dis- 
tribution of these lessons } Would it be best to teach ten 
lessons a week for four weeks, or five lessons a week for 
eight weeks, or four lessons a week for ten weeks } When 
we consider the data on simple practice already referred to, 
and take into account the fact that the practice teacher com- 
monly has to put in two or three hours a day in preparation 
for each lesson which he teaches, it is evident that the prac- 
tice distributed over eight or ten weeks would be much more 
fruitful than the same amount of practice concentrated into 
four weeks. Probably even a wider distribution of the practice 
periods would be justified. 

Establish desirable emotional attitude. — A third general 
rule of practice for the supervisor to apply is to endeavor to 
secure a favorable emotional tone on the part of the practice 
teacher. The elements of nervousness, worry, and fear of 
criticism should be eliminated as far as possible, and feelings 
of spontaneous interest, pleasure, and satisfaction in success 
stimulated. To secure these emotional conditions at the same 



PRACTICE TEACHING AND PLANNING 479 

time that he holds up high standards of attainment calls for 
great skill on the part of the critic teacher or supervisor. 

Special type of skill needed for supervision. — The quali- 
ties and efficiency of the supervisor are most important factors 
in the successful training of practice teachers. It is not suffi- 
cient that he be simply a good teacher. He must have clear 
ideas concerning methods of teaching and be able to impart 
these ideas to others. The processes and responses which 
the beginning teacher must master are entirely too compli- 
cated and rational to be mastered merely by imitation. The 
student must have given to him not merely a good example 
but also a clear understanding of the controlling ideas and 
purposes, for he will not make much progress in the com- 
plications of his first year of regular teaching if he has only 
a few examples to fall back upon for suggestions. Some 
skilled teachers cannot analyze their own skill or that of 
others ; hence they are poor supervisors of practice, just as 
many skilled athletes make poor athletic directors or coaches, 
as noted above on page 1 08 . Thus we see that skilled super- 
vision is a very difficult matter. A person may be a master 
of the theory of teaching but not be able to apply it in train- 
ing teachers in practice ; or he may be a master teacher and 
not be able to analyze skill in teaching ; or, finally, a person 
may be both a master of theory and a skilled teacher, and 
yet not be able to direct practice teachers in such a way as 
to develop them. Perhaps the greatest art in teaching is 
skilled supervision of teachers. 

Routinized scheme for administering practice is desirable. 
— The skilled supervisor, or critic teacher, should have fre- 
quent conferences with a practice teacher to discuss with him 
the latter's plans as related to the fundamental purposes of 
the teaching to be done and the principles that should govern 
it. He should endeavor to get the practice teacher to develop 
the habit of thoughtfully planning all teaching and of always 
trying to secure improved results. As a basis for mutual 



48o TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

understanding and economy in such conferences it is de- 
sirable to have some formal scheme for writing out plans 
for teaching. This is wise even when there are only a few 
practice teachers. Mimeographed or printed descriptions of 
such a scheme provide at the outset for certain routine con- 
ditions that facilitate discussion and save giving many oral 
directions which may be incomplete or which it may be nec- 
essary to repeat. When there are many practice teachers 
and supervisors, some such routine device is absolutely nec- 
essary for economy and greatly increases efficiency. 

Herbartian formal steps a favorite roiUine device. — More- 
over, such a scheme assists new supervisors or critic teachers 
in working into the system. In any case, supervision is a 
difficult process ; beginners often have trouble in getting the 
ideas and technique of doing it, and are greatly assisted by a 
routine scheme that contains many of the essentials of good 
planning and good teaching. This is one of the reasons for 
the popularity of the Herbartian five formal steps of instruc- 
tion. These are essentially a routine device to assist begin- 
ning practice teachers and supervisors in the planning and 
administration of practice teaching. As ordinarily adminis- 
tered they make routine provision for some of the most im- 
portant principles of method, especially as applied to reflective 
thinking. They may be described as follows : 

1 . Preparation. — Stating the aim of the lesson, recalling 
related facts, and taking other precautions to put pupils in the 
right frame of mind for the new material. 

2. Presentation. — Securing new data or experiences from 
reading, lecturing, conversing, experimenting, questioning, 
etc. 

3. Association, comparison, and abstraction. — Discussing 
and interpreting the new material, relating it to previous ex- 
periences, comparing, classifying, arranging, noting common 
characteristics, perhaps reaching a vague feeling of the general 
principles involved. 



PRACTICE TEACHING AND PLANNING 481 

4. Generalization. — Formulating a statement of the gen- 
eral principles which have been worked up to in step 3. 

5. Application. — Interpreting other situations or experi- 
ences (new or old) in terms of the generalization reached, 
working particular problems, and judging special cases of all 
sorts. 

It is evident that the first step provides for the application 
of the principle of apperception, one of the most important 
factors in successful teaching (see above, pp. 300-312). The 
second step provides for the study of specific examples as the 
basis of the study of abstractions and generalizations. This 
point we have also emphasized (see p. 217). The fifth step 
provides specifically for practice in using the knowledge 
acquired — a further characteristic of good teaching (see 
pp. 208 and 226). 

Herbartian scheme has improved practice teaching. — 
Thus we see that the formal steps have served a very useful 
purpose in improving practice teaching in American normal 
schools by furnishing a routine device that insures the ob- 
servance of some of the most important principles of method. 
As stated in the note on page 229, the steps do not corre- 
spond to the processes of reflective thought, as is sometimes 
claimed ; but it is not essential that they should. They may 
be used as a practical device in many lessons with fairly full 
assurance that better results will be obtained than if no such 
definite basis of planning had been used. To be sure, if some 
better scheme can be devised, it should be adopted. 

A routinized scheme for planning lessons, which is based 
somewhat on the Herbartian formal steps (although these 
are not distinguished in the lesson plans), is described in 
McMurry's ''Method of the Recitation" (1903) (pp. 329- 
339). The general principles to be applied in planning are 
so admirably set forth that McMurry's chapter has been very 
influential in determining the administration of lesson-planning 
in normal schools throughout the United States. 



482 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

Separate subject matter and method. Brief of former. — 
The most important point in McMurry's general discussion 
concerns the separate study, mastery, and arrangement of sub- 
ject matter and method in the writing of plans. This point 
applies especially to the teaching of lessons in history, English 
(both literature and composition), science, and some lessons in 
mathematics and foreign language. After the practice teacher 
has been given the assignment of topics to be taught (say the 
Peloponnesian War in Greek History, or old English ballads 
in literature, or the qualities of chlorine in chemistry) the 
first point that both supervisor and practice teacher should 
make sure of is that the latter has a thorough mastery of the 
subject matter to be taught. This means not only a thorough 
knowledge of the detailed facts, but also clear ideas of the 
relations involved and of the relative values of points. The 
writing of a brief of the subject matter furnishes the best 
device for the practice teacher to use in organizing his own 
ideas. Moreover, the practice teacher's brief also furnishes 
the supervisor with a definite objective basis for checking up 
the former's ideas with him (compare pp. 280 and 432). 

Practice teacher needs fidl knowledge. — Practice teachers 
need to be strongly impressed with the necessity of deep 
and thorough knowledge of the topics they are to teach. 
They should realize that profound knowledge is needed by 
the teacher in order to give pupils a correct and impressive 
introduction. In many cases, in order that the pupils may 
get a correct general idea, many details and examples must be 
given which they will not be expected to remember. But the 
teacher must have all of these details thoroughly mastered and 
learned ; hence he must know and give much more than the 
students will learn (compare Chapter IV, pp. 76-78). 

A practice teacher who is preparing and organizing a topic 
for teaching might revise his brief of the subject matter a 
number of times. At first his organization may be deter- 
mined entirely by the character of the material itself, but he 



PRACTICE TEACHING AND PLANNING 483 

may modify the arrangement later from the standpoint of the 
order in which the topics might be taken up to best advantage 
in the series of lessons. 

Write out pivotal questions in method plan. — After the 
inexperienced practice teacher has mastered and organized 
his subject matter for teaching, he should plan and write out 
quite completely an account of the anticipated procedure in 
the teaching. This plan should contain the exact wording of 
the more important questions that he expects to ask. The 
difficulty of wording questions well has already been emphasized 
(see pp. 467-468). It is mUch easier to tell a known fact than 
to secure a statement of it from others by questioning. Hence 
the practice teacher who has mastered his subject matter has 
only begun to get ready to teach it. He might go before his 
class prepared to lecture glibly for half an hour, and yet be 
completely at a loss in trying to secure effective and economi- 
cal progress by questioning. It behooves him to do everything 
he can before undertaking the actual teaching, to overcome 
the difficulties that will confront, him. If his class is well 
behaved, his greatest difficulty will be to keep thinking with 
sufficient clearness and rapidity to ask good questions. If his 
lesson follows certain well-organized general lines, he can de- 
pend upon using as the most important questions those which 
he has carefully prepared in advance. These principal ques- 
tions constitute the turning points in the discussion — the 
points upon which many of the minor questions may hinge. 
McMurry calls thQm pivotal questions. 

A mimeographed scheme of directions should be provided. 
— The mastery of subject matter and its organization in the 
form of a brief, to be followed by a detailed working out of 
the anticipated procedure in the teaching, including the exact 
formulation of pivotal questions — these are the two chief points 
in the planning of many lessons. This is especially true of 
lessons that involve association of ideas, reflective thinking, 
enjoyment, or linguistic expression. In addition to these two 



484 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

main points there are many details to be considered in the 
administration of lesson-planning, and these should all be 
provided for in some routine scheme. As a basis for organ- 
izing these details in a complicated situation the author uses 
in the School of Education in The University of Chicago the 
general scheme of directions printed below. The directions 
apply to practice teaching from the primary grades through 
high school. Any skilled, competent supervisor in the school 
may make modifications in the plan to suit his own needs, 
provided he furnishes a definite mimeographed snbstitttte. 
Many teachers who object to a scheme that they are asked to 
follow do so merely because they are irresponsible individual- 
ists who do not want to take the trouble to provide careful 
administration. Such teachers need to be held strictly to plans 
for efficiency that have been made by someone else. Other 
teachers, however, may devise modified schemes that fit their 
peculiar needs better than the general scheme does. They 
should often be encouraged to do so. Thus, the head of the 
mathematics department in the University of Chicago High 
School, who has charge of the practice teaching in mathe- 
matics, uses mimeographed modifications of the general direc- 
tions, which are especially adapted to such practice teaching as 
he supervises. The general directions which are printed in a 
handbook for practice teaching prepared by the author are the 
following : 

DIRECTIONS FOR LESSON PLANS 

Lesson plans should be prepared according to the directions 
given below for that purpose. At first the plans required should 
be very complete, but as the student progresses the plans may be 
briefer at the discretion of the critic teacher. These plans should 
show the critic's signature and date when approved. 

In the case of lessons in geography, history, science, literature, 
and other content subjects above the second grade, and in general 
where there is a considerable body of subject matter to be taught, 
the following directions should be adhered to. In the work of the 



PRACTICE TEACHING AND PLANNING 485 

first and second grades, and in the constructive work in all grades 
where the subject matter is meager, the separation of subject 
matter and method need not be made. In mathematics and read- 
ing the practice will vary, depending upon the topic and the method. 
In case there is no reading to be done by teacher or pupils, 
2, d and 2, e should be omitted. 

1. Separate subject matter and method in the plan, putting the 
former on the left-hand page and the latter on the right-hand page 
(or in the left-hand and right-hand columns, respectively, of the 
same page). Use theme paper. 

The subject-matter plan for any topic should be completed in 
advance ; the method plan may be prepared from day to day or 
for longer periods, as the critic teacher directs. 

2. Under subject matter state : 

a. Topic of the lesson or lessons. 

b. Grade in which the teaching is to be done. 

c. Teacher's aim briefly in terms of information, or skill, or 
habits, or ideals, or interests, or emotions of specific kinds. 

d. Page references to sources of teacher's information. 

e. Page references to reading to be done by pupils. Also list 
of illustrative materials to be used. 

f. A brief analysis of the main points in the lesson (from two 
to four brief statements). 

g. An outline (in the form of a rather complete brief) containing 
all important facts, principles, information, relations, experiments 
which are to be contained in the lesson. The outli7ie is to consist 
of complete^ concise statemejits^ not merely topics. It should be so 
paragraphed and subdivided as to indicate clearly the subordination 
and relative value of the parts. 

3. Under method give : 

a. A short description of the general procedure to be followed 
in the teaching (in from two to four brief statements). 

b. A detailed statement of the anticipated procedure, showing 
chief steps to be followed in teaching the lesson and main questions 
to be asked. This should consist of concise statements and co77iplete 
questio?is paragraphed and subdivided in the form of a brief. Indi- 
cate at appropriate places how illustrative material and various 
forms of expression are to be used. 



486 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

4. Note the difference between 2, g, outline of subject matter, 
and 3, b, outline of method. 2,^ calls for the bare facts ; 3, b calls 
for the method of treating these facts in the class. For example, 
in a plan for teaching Shakespeare's " Julius Caesar " a student 
began 2 , ^ as follows : 

"I. Time and historical setting. 

1 . 44 B.C. Based with remarkable faithfulness on Plutarch's 
narrative. 

2. The old Roman democracy was hopelessly broken 
down. 

3. Caesar the man of the hour. Made himself master of the 
army and defeated his great rival, Pompey, in battle. 

4. Created dictator for life. 

5. Observed lenient policy toward enemies but many not 
grateful." 

Under 3, b the same topic appeared as follows : 
"I. Time and historical setting. 

1. Give the date of the action of the drama. 

2. Describe the political situation at Rome. 

3. In the battle from which Caesar had just returned, who 
were the contestants and what were the results .? 

4. What was Caesar's position in the state ? 

5. What faction was forming against Caesar ? " 

A few comments on certain points in the above scheme 
may be necessary. As indicated in the second sentence of 
the directions, the plans may be shortened as the practice 
teacher acquires skill. A short written plan, at least, should 
always be required, however, even of a fairly skilled practice 
teacher, since even the most experienced teacher will make a 
plan of a topic which he is going to teach for the first time. 
This plan would include a short brief of the subject matter, 
and the pivotal questions. 

Paragraph 2, c, concerning the teacher's aim, usually needs 
some elaboration to make its meaning clear. The analysis 
suggested here corresponds to the discussion of proximate 
aims given in Chapter II (pp. 18-23). 



PRACTICE TEACHING AND PLANNING 487 

Paragraphs 2, </and 2, e are intended to make sure that the 
practice teachers cover a wide range of reading in the con- 
tent subjects as a basis for a thorough knowledge of the 
topics to be taught. This reading should be done in standard 
authorities, not simply in textbooks. The supervisor should 
make it easy for the practice teacher to obtain such material 
to read. 

Sample-lesson plans. — Practice teachers may secure a 
number of suggestions from sample-lesson plans. For this 
purpose they should read all of the references given in the 
bibliography at the end of this chapter. 

Make plans of lessons observed. — As an exercise in secur- 
ing ideas concerning the organization of lesson plans, a prac- 
tice teacher may observe a series of lessons taught by a 
skilled teacher, take notes on these, and write them up 
under the headings required in the scheme for plans. This 
should prove particularly helpful in getting ideas concerning 
specific purposes which the teacher seems to stress, and con- 
cerning the organization of subject matter and the wording 
of pivotal questions. In seeing the same skilled teacher give 
the same lesson to different classes, often with a year inter- 
vening, I have been impressed with the definiteness of the 
plan and the extent to which it tends to follow the same 
general lines in the various classes. After much study and 
experimentation a series of progressive steps and pivotal 
questions have been selected by the teacher, which, with 
slight variations, secure specific valuable responses and re- 
sults with almost perfect certainty. If the practice teacher 
who is observing such teaching will cast the description and 
content of it in the form of a lesson plan, it will often appear 
as an excellent model. 

Departure from plan while teaching. Not necessarily wide 
ivith experienced teachers. — It is sometimes urged that a 
teacher cannot foresee just what direction a lesson will take, 
and hence that the making of a definite plan is a waste of 



488 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

time. Such facts as those given in the previous paragraph 
show that the necessary range of variation in skilled teaching 
of a given topic is not as wide as is implied in this contention. 
There is variation, but it is within limits that can be antici- 
pated by the skilled teacher who has mastered the subject 
matter thoroughly and who sees clearly the fundamental pur- 
poses and relative values involved in the series of lessons. 
Hence, while the actual carrying out of a plan will be adapted 
to circumstances, a teacher will usually not depart from the 
fundamental lines that he has planned. ' There are some 
supervisors who criticize practice teachers for failure to fol- 
low up every chance interest which is expressed during a 
recitation. Such criticisms are based on a wrong conception 
of the purposes of instruction. Skilled teaching consists in 
stimulating and directing mental activity so as to accomplish 
certain specific aims and results ; it does not consist simply in 
arousing any mental activity that may be secured by taking ad- 
vantage of any chance interest. Even if the interest which is 
expressed presents valuable possibilities, it is not necessary to 
follow it at the time ; a tactful expression of appreciation on 
the part of the teacher and postponement until some other 
time are sufficient. 

But more serious consideration needs to be given to un- 
foreseen difficidties encountered in the teaching of a lesson 
or series of lessons. These seldom occur with the teacher 
who has taught the same topics to similar classes a number 
of times. They will be quite frequent, however, with practice 
teachers. The plan should be readjusted so as to provide for 
them, but not so as to lose sight of the purpose of the lessons. 

Example of routine directions to practice teachers and 
supervisors. — Some additional suggestions concerning the 
organization of practice teaching may be secured from the 
following extracts from the author's '' Handbook for Prac- 
tice Teaching," which is used as the basis of administration 
of this work in The University of Chicago. 



PRACTICE TEACHING AND PLANNING 489 

THE CONDUCT OF PRACTICE TEACHING 

1 . General purpose and character. — The purposes of this work 
are (a) to help students to appreciate educational theory by them- 
selves putting it into practice, and (b) to train them in those practical 
adjustments which constitute effective teaching. Generally speak- 
ing, the sooner a student teacher can be prepared to do some effec- 
tive teaching, the better. Observation which follows some attempt 
at teaching is more valuable than that which precedes teaching. 

2. Duties of student teachers. — a. The student is responsible 
for understanding and appreciating the work of the term in the 
subject assigned for practice, and any other phases of the curric- 
ulum of the school or the work of the grade that the critic teacher 
desires to take up. 

b. The student is responsible from the beginning for participat- 
ing and assisting in the activities of the room — for example, cor- 
recting papers, gathering materials, assisting individual pupils, etc. 

c. As a rule the student will be assigned at first some easy sub- 
topic in a larger unit and allowed to teach from one to five lessons, 
thus being initiated gradually into the work. 

d. The number of periods of teaching will be increased as the 
student becomes capable of assuming them. 

e. Student teachers are expected to attend critic meetings which 
are arranged by critic teachers. These will be frequent during the 
first part of the quarter. 

f. Student teachers should get ready to begin teaching as soon 
as possible, and are held strictly accountable for expected results. 

g. The student is primarily responsible to the critic teacher in 
whose place he teaches. He may be referred to the appropriate 
department in the College of Education for assistance in securing 
the material needed in preparation for his teaching, 

3 . Reports by critic teachers. — Reports from the critic teacher are 
filed with the dean. These reports will be made the basis not only for 
credits in the course but also for later recommendations to positions. 

The points outlined below are considered in making these re- 
ports, which characterize very definitely and in detail the individu- 
ality of the student teacher. This does not mean that the critic 
teacher reports on each point in every case, but that he emphasizes 



490 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

those points that are especially significant for the particular student 
teacher concerned. The critic also adds comments on any other 
notable aspects of the student's work. 

a. Preparation of lessons. — Clearness of purpose ; originality ; 
thoroughness; organization of subject matter; appreciation of rela- 
tive values ; mechanics of plan-arrangement ; paragraphing, con- 
ciseness of statement, writing, etc. 

b. Skill i?i co7iducting recitations. — In exposition, or telling ; ques- 
tioning; holding attention and interest; reaching individuals; using 
children's experiences and responses ; keeping lessons organized ; 
economizing time ; securing and fixing definite results ; using black- 
board and other means of illustration; care of pupils' English; 
assigning study lessons, etc. 

c. Ability to manage children. — General attitude — formal, in- 
formal, severe, sympathetic ; systematizing and economizing routine ; 
handling distracting or disturbing elements; maintaining authority; 
decision ; consistency, etc. 

d. Personal fitness for teaching. — Health ; energy ; sense of re- 
sponsibility ; intelligence ; knowledge ; willingness ; attitude toward 
criticism; promptness; persistence; animation; general culture — 
refinement ; courtesy ; confidence, poise ; neatness ; carriage ; voice, 
enunciation, etc. 

e. General ratifig of teaching (as excellent, good, fair, barely 
passable, unsatisfactory). 

Conclusion of discussion of practice teaching and lesson 
planning. — This will conclude our discussion of practice 
teaching and lesson planning. It is probable that during the 
next decade prospective high-school teachers will be provided 
with means for such activity. In order that large profit may 
be secured from a small amount of practice, it is important 
that schemes for practice teaching be carefully routinized and 
that the general principles of practice be applied. These in- 
clude a correct distribution of time and very careful planning 
of lessons in order to secure a correct start. The careful 
organization of subject matter in the form of a brief, and the 
preparation of pivotal questions, are among the most important 
elements in correct planning. 



PRACTICE TEACHING AND PLANNING 491 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES 

1. Charters, W. W. Methods of Teaching. (Row, Peterson & Co., 
191 2.) Pp. 414-434- 

2. McMuRRY, F. and C. The Method of the Recitation. (The 
Macmillan Company, 1903.) Pp. 329-339. 

3. Strayer, G. D. The Teaching Process. (The Macmillan Com- 
pany, 191 1.) Pp. 167-223. 

4. University of Wisconsin. Bulletin of the Uitiversity of Wisconsin 
High School {\()i^). A unique scheme of mixed observation and prac- 
tice teaching has been organized in this institution. Student teachers 
participate in all the work of a high-school class and may be called on 
at any moment to "do the next thing" either in the form of reciting or 
of teaching. 



CHAPTER XXII 

MEASURING THE RESULTS OF TEACHING 

Main points of the chapter. — i . Careful testing of the results 
of teaching is necessary in order to determine to what extent its 
aims and purposes are being achieved. 

2. In order to avoid the extremes of overemphasis and neglect 
of testing, routine provision for frequent short written tests should 
be made, but only a small part of the recitation periods should be 
used for this purpose. 

3. The tests should be so conducted as to show the real relative 
abilities of the students. 

4. The possibility of securing satisfactory testing varies with the 
different types of learning ; it is easy to test the acquisition of in- 
formation; but almost impossible at present to measure the develop- 
ment of habits of enjoyment. 

5 . Tables of distribution of the grades made by all the students 
in the class should be shown and each student informed of his own 
standing with reference to the rest of the group. Comparisons 
between individuals should be avoided, however. 

6. In order to measure the relative achievements of different 
classes and schools, and the relative efficiency of different methods 
of instruction, more reliable units and scales for rating achievement 
in the various subjects are necessary. 

7. Such scales are being rapidly developed in several subjects, 
and permit of more impartial, objective, precise, and verifiable in- 
vestigations of the results of teaching than prevailed until recently. 

Measurements of results show whether purposes have been 
achieved. — In connection with all the processes of learning 
and instruction that have been discussed in preceding chap- 
ters it is important to measure frequently the results that are 
being achieved, in order to determine to what extent the 

492 



MEASURING THE RESULTS OF TEACHING 493 

aims and purposes are actually being realized. Such meas- 
urements may consist of the ordinary oral or written tests 
given by the teacher, or of elaborate measurements, by expert 
supervisors, of the achievements of many classes or schools 
or systems. These tests or measurements are of value to 
the students, the teacher, and the supervisors. To the students 
the ordinary tests serve as a stimulus to study, and, if prop- 
erly administered, keep each student informed of the progress 
which he is making. This information concerning the prog- 
ress of the students enables the teacher to adapt his instruc- 
tion to their needs and to judge of the success of his own 
efforts and devices. The comparative measurement of the 
results achieved by many classes and systems enables ad- 
ministrative officers and expert educational investigators to 
determine just what the schools actually are accomplishing, 
and the relative efficiency of various methods of instruction 
in securing desirable results. We shall take up first the dis- 
cussion of ordinary quizzing, testing, and examining by the 
individual teacher, and then consider the larger comparative 
measurements of the achievements of several classes and of 
the efficiency of different methods of instruction. 

Routine testing by the teacher. Avoid extremes of over- 
emphasis and neglect. — In connection with the ordinary 
quizzing, testing, and examining by the individual teacher 
we find two extreme practices, with all intermediate degrees 
of variation. The extremes are those of overemphasis and 
absolute neglect. The extreme of overemphasis of quizzing 
and testing is found in the common practice of using the 
recitation period largely for the asking of questions to deter- 
mine whether students have studied their lessons. Often the 
whole period is given up to oral quizzing or testing. The 
extreme of neglect is found in the work of those idealistic 
instructors who insist that testing and examining are debas- 
ing, pernicious educational practices. They maintain that 
the teacher should assume that students are zealous and 



494 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

conscientious and that they have studied faithfully. Con- 
sequently they say that the recitation should be used entirely 
for supplementary and inspirational discussions. 

Both of these extremes should be avoided. The use of the 
entire recitation period for oral quizzing to determine whether 
lessons have been studied wastes the time of those who have 
mastered the assignments, fails to utilize the opportunity for 
supplementary and interpretative discussion, and removes the 
best motive for recitations ; namely, a real audience situation. 
On the other hand, the neglect of testing altogether is based 
on the false assumption that most students will study consci- 
entiously without some regular stimulus other than the mere 
love of study. Even for most adult workers the spur that 
results from the necessity of showing certain definite, tangible 
results at no remote date is an important factor in achieve- 
ment. A good example of this is found in the way teachers 
themselves will delay the writing of a paper or address that 
is not due for some time, and will really not get down to 
work until the occasion is imminent and they must show the 
results. Moreover, unless teacher and students are continu- 
ally taking stock of the progress that has been made, of what 
has been mastered and what has not, their efforts to secure 
a systematic, thorough mastery of the subject may often be 
wasted to a considerable degree and result in merely a super- 
ficial, confused impression of the subject. 

Freqttent shoi^t tests obviate both overemphasis and neglect. 
— Both extremes (namely, the overemphasis of testing and 
its neglect) may be avoided by setting apart a small but defi- 
nite part of the recitation period, or of a series of periods, for 
testing, and using the rest of the period or periods for sup- 
plementary and interpretative discussions. This practice is 
simply an application of the general principle of making 
routine provision for activities which it is desirable to make 
sure of securing periodically. It is similar in general arrange- 
ment to the setting apart of periods for supervised study, as 



MEASURING THE RESULTS OF TEACHING 495 

discussed above on page 402 . Such routinizing is absolutely 
necessary for relatively unskilled, inexperienced teachers if 
they are to avoid neglecting important processes, and it is 
valuable from the standpoint of mental economy for even 
skilled teachers. If this general practice of routinizing the 
program is followed, specific and sure provision will be made 
for careful assignments, supervised study, testing, and sup- 
plementary and interpretative discussions, none of which 
should be neglected. 

Written tests better than oral tests. — Probably frequent 
short written tests, supplemented by occasional long written 
examinations, constitute the best form of routine testing. 
Students and teachers usually favor short written tests in- 
stead of oral quizzes, if we may assume that the same general 
practices should prevail in this regard in high schools as in 
college. The general sentiment of college students them- 
selves concerning the value of written quizzes was secured 
in an investigation of certain problems of instruction in The 
University of Chicago. 

Of the Alumni 157 found frequent written tests in class espe- 
cially valuable ; 52 did not. Of undergraduates 102 found them 
so; 40 did not. . . . 

The question, Which is preferable, the oral quiz or the written 
test ? was proposed to undergraduates. The opinion is nearly 
unanimous: 28 favor the oral quiz; 113 the written test; 9 a 
combination of the two. . . . The reasons given for the answers 
are significant and suggest at once to the teacher the respective 
purpose which each may well serve. 

The reasons assigned for preferring the oral quiz are : ^'re- 
quires quick thought," 2 ; " errors can be corrected and explana- 
tion given," 13; ''gives training in speaking," 2; "makes the 
student more logical in speaking," 3 ; " prevents misunderstanding 
of questions by student or of answers by teachers," 3. 

The reasons assigned for preferring the written test are: "gives 
time to think and organize and present more logically," 57;" student 
is more at ease," 17; "less chance for bluffing," 7; "gives all 



49^ TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

equal chance on same questions," 1 1 ; " gives a chance at more 
than one question," i8 ; "is fairer," 22; "is more thorough," 
14; " calls for more preparation," 6. (9: 64-65) 

Precautions for assuring commensurable results from stu- 
dents. — In order to assist in the interpretation of the results 
of written tests it is desirable to take certain precautions in 
administering them. In the first place, unless every student is 
given just as much time as he wishes in which to answer all 
of the questions, the same amount of time should be given to 
all students and the examination made so difficult that no stu- 
dent can get all of the answers completed in the time allowed 
or can make a perfect score. If this is not done, certain stu- 
dents may finish all of the answers before the allotted time 
is up, and the teacher cannot tell how much better they might 
have done if they had been given an opportunity. Also, 
there is likely to result an undistributed group of perfect 
scores made by students who really have not the same de- 
gree of mastery of the subject. In other words, if the exam- 
ination is not made sufficiently difficult, out of a class of 
twenty-five students seven or eight may make a score of A 
(95 per cent to 100 per cent) and appear to have very nearly 
the same mastery of the subject; whereas, if they were given 
questions that would really test them out, it would be found 
that some members of the group of eight who made a grade 
of A could really do much better than the others who made 
the same grade. For the same reason all students should 
usually be required to write on all questions if the examina- 
tion covers the same assignment for all. Moreover, the stu- 
dents should probably be required to answer the questions in 
the order in which they are given, and if a student omits a 
question but answers those that follow, it should be assumed 
that he is not prepared upon the one that was omitted. In 
cases where the questions permit of long discussions, it is 
often well to place a limit on the time taken to answer each 



MEASURING THE RESULTS OF TEACHING 497 

question ; for example, in tests or examinations in education 
I find that the best basis for securing commensurable results 
from students consists in giving a number of questions cover- 
ing the assignments and in placing such a limit upon the time 
for each question that the best-prepared students can barely 
finish it in the time given. After the class is started, I an- 
nounce, '' Time to begin the second question," *' Time to begin 
the third question," etc. This not only secures fairly reliable, 
comparative measures of what the students can do, but saves 
them from bothering about the distribution of their own time 
and helps them to concentrate theii: minds upon the questions 
and upon organizing and writing their answers. In subjects 
like mathematics, where each answer can be definitely com- 
pleted, the time limit on single problems would not apply, 
but commensurable results would be secured by the other 
practice, referred to above, of giving such a long list that no 
one could get them all done in the allotted time. Occasion- 
ally the teacher needs to make allowance for the variation in 
the speed of handwriting of different students, but this is 
seldom practicable. 

Reqidre preliminary zvritten otttline of answer to each 
question. — In order to assist students to develop skill in 
answering questions which require discussion, as well as to 
secure answers that the teacher can read and evaluate rapidly, 
the latter should give the students directions to organize the 
answer to a question in the form of an outline before begin- 
ning to write out the complete answer. This outline should 
appear in the student's paper, preceding the full answer. 
When such a device is used, the training in the rapid or- 
ganization and expression of thought which written tests 
and examinations provide is further justification for giving 
them frequently. 

Measuring various types of learning. RemembeHng, tinder- 
standifzg, and applying. — In the intellectual studies, exami- 
nations may test any or all of the three following phases of 



498 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

the student's study and progress : (i) what he remembers, 
(2) how well he understands what he remembers, and (3) how 
well he can use or apply it. 

(i) It is easiest to test what students remember; conse- 
quently there is danger of overemphasizing this factor in 
testing, and neglecting the other two. It should be very 
definitely included in the testing, however, for reasons that 
are given at length on pages 19 and 420. (2) Testing how 
well students understand what they remember is much more 
difficult than simply ascertaining what they remember. Ques- 
tions for the former purpose usually call for explanation, in- 
terpretation, or supplementing by the students. (3) To test 
how well students can really use what they have learned, in 
solving problems or explaining new situations, is not difficult 
in mathematics, grammar, and the natural sciences, but it is 
difficult in such subjects as history, where there is much in- 
formation to be acquired but little opportunity to apply it. 
The most difficult type of examination question to devise 
in some subjects is one that tests all three of these phases 
of the student's preparation and progress at the same time. 
That is, we want to find out whether the students have 
studied certain specific assignments and whether they under- 
stand what they have learned and can apply it. In mathe- 
matics and the natural sciences this can be done without 
difficulty in many cases by setting problems that require ability 
to recall, understand, and apply certain formulae which occur 
in the assignments for study. In the social sciences (history, 
sociology, civics, economics, education, ethics, etc.), however, 
this is often difficult, because students may sometimes discuss 
an applied problem very ably on the basis of general informa- 
tion, without having studied the assigned readings at all. Such 
bluffing by students on explanatory and applied questions 
often makes it necessary for the instructor in such subjects to 
ask purely informational questions which cannot be answered 
by the students unless they have studied the assigned readings. 



MEASURING THE RESULTS OF TEACHING 499 

General impression of objective products in motor learnhig. 
— In the testing of results in subjects involving motor skill 
there are usually definite objective tasks which can be assigned 
and the results graded roughly according to quality and speed 
or time required. As a rule the teacher's general impression 
of the achievements of various students is the basis of the 
grading. The general impressions of some teachers are fairly 
reliable, but they should be verified by more precise means 
of testing and measuring than we now possess. 

Diffictdt to measure fnndaniental aspects of expression, — 
The testing of skill in expression (for example, in composition 
in high school) is very difficult, owing to the complexity of the 
factors involved and the lack of definite standards for some of 
the more intangible qualities, such as clearness, organization, 
impressiveness, etc. As a consequence unskilled teachers give 
attention to certain rather definite objective factors, such as 
spelling, punctuation, and indentation, and grade almost en- 
tirely on this basis, thus largely disregarding the other more 
fundamental aspects of skill in expression. 

No adequate measures of habits of enjoyment. — For test- 
ing the acquisition of habits of enjoyment we have almost 
no methods. How can a teacher find out what relative prog- 
ress the various members of a class in music have made in 
the development of habits of enjoying standard music 1 How 
can a teacher of literature ascertain the same fact for the better 
grades of fiction or contemporary periodical literature } Owing 
to the difficulty of setting examinations for such factors, and 
to the ease of testing information acquired, nearly all teach- 
ers of such subjects simply make up questions that test the 
student's knowledge of facts or allusions, or of the technical 
qualities of compositions or selections, and entirely fail to 
test habits of enjoyment. Such a practice is not only a fail- 
ure from the standpoint of effective testing, but it is also per- 
nicious because it tends to throw the emphasis upon purely 
intellectual instead of emotional processes in the instruction. 



500 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

Methods of grading. May be based 07i relative position in 
some subjects. — The returns secured in tests and examina- 
tions should be carefully graded, the marks distributed so as 
to show the relative number of achievements of different grade, 
and each student informed just where he stands in the distri- 
bution ; that is, with reference to the achievements of the class 
as a group. In certain subjects, like algebra and the gram- 
matical exercises in a foreign language, it is relatively easy 
to get definite grades for papers in terms of per cents, which 
will represent fairly well the relative achievements of the stu- 
dents. In the case of examination papers in which discussion 
is the most important thing, however, it is difficult to rate 
01 grade exactly. Hence it is a good practice to distribute 
such papers into piles according to their relative value, and 
then to assign a grade to each pile. The teacher may esti- 
mate roughly that five grades or piles will do. Upon reading 
the first paper he places it where it would seem to belong ; 
that is, as being of first, second, third, fourth, or fifth grade. 
Similarly with the following papers. If a paper is read which 
seems to be superior to any which have been placed in the 
first-grade pile, it can be placed in a new pile by itself, thus 
establishing a new best grade. Similarly, grades or piles 
between the others or below the others can be started if it is 
found necessary. Usually from five to ten piles will be suffi- 
cient. After this distribution by relative position has been 
made, the teacher can decide what grade in the regular marking 
system is deserved by the best paper or papers ; that is, whether 
it should be marked A or A—, or B. Similarly, the mark for 
the poorest paper or papers could be decided upon, and then the 
intermediate piles assigned their marks accordingly. If there 
are many papers, and the examination has been sufficiently 
difficult, it will be found that the distribution will roughly 
approximate the normal type described above on page 377. 

Correct all answers to each question by itself. — In cases 
where there are a great many papers to grade, and the answers 



MEASURING THE RESULTS OF TEACHING 501 

take the form of discussions, it is often well to read the answers 
to the first question in all the papers and rate them before 
reading the answers to the other questions. In doing this the 
same method of distribution by relative position should be 
followed as described in the preceding paragraph. That is, 
while simply reading answers to the first question the papers 
should be distributed into five piles. After reading all first 
answers, the papers in the best pile should all be given a grade 
of 5 on the first question, and those in the poorest pile a grade 
of I or less. The papers in the other piles should be labeled 
4, 3, and 2 for the first answer, according to the piles in which 
they belong. Grades li, 2^, 3|-, and 4! can be inserted if 
desired. The papers are then shuffled and all of the answers 
to the second question are read and numbered in the same 
way. After this has been done for all the questions, the scores 
for the several answers in each paper can be added to secure 
a single score. The paper having the highest total score will 
be the best paper, and the one having the lowest will be the 
poorest. It can then be determined what grades in the regu- 
lar marking system these extremes deserve, and the marks 
for the intermediate papers can be assigned accordingly. 

Inform class of the general distribution of grades and let 
each pupil know his ozvn grade. — After grading the papers 
they should be returned to the students in such a way as to 
minimize the giving of publicity to individual achievement. 
On the other hand, the group achievement should be shown 
and explained to the class just as fully as possible by putting 
on the blackboard a table of distribution showing the number 
of A's, B's, C's, etc. made in the examination. This will en- 
able each individual to understand just where he ranks with 
reference to the possible achievement in that class and sub- 
ject, without introducing any comparisons between individual 
students. At the same time the teacher should discuss the 
various types of possible answers to the several questions, and 
should comment on good answers and typical errors. 



502 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

The periodical testing of the achievements and progress 
of students could be greatly improved by the development of 
adequate scales of measurement and standards of achievement 
and the mastery of the special technique of using these. The 
discussion of these can be taken up to best- advantage, however, 
in connection with the second large aspect of measuring the 
results of teaching ; namely, the testing of the relative achieve- 
ments of different groups of students, or of different schools 
or different systems, to which we shall now turn our attention. 

Comparative measures of different classes and methods. 
Enthusiastic interest developed i^ecently. — The development 
of an interest in securing adequate reliable measures of what 
schools are actually accomplishing has occurred during the 
last twenty years. This fact is brought out in the following 
statement by Ayers, written in 191 2. 

Fifteen years ago the school superintendents of America, assem- 
bled in convention in Indianapolis, discussed the problems then 
foremost in educational thought and action. At that meeting a dis- 
tinguished educator — the pioneer and pathfinder among the scien- 
tific students of education in America — presented the results of 
his investigations of spelling in the school systems of nineteen cities. 
These results showed that, taken all in all, the children who had 
spent forty minutes a day for eight years in studying spelling did 
not spell any better than the children in the schools of other cities 
where they devoted only ten minutes per day to the study. 

The presentation of these data threw that assemblage into con- 
sternation, dismay, and indignant protest. But the resulting storm 
of vigorously voiced opposition was directed, not against the methods 
and results of the investigation, but against the investigator who 
had pretended to measure the results of teaching spelling by testing 
the ability of the children to spell. 

In terms of scathing denunciation the educators there present, 
and the pedagogical experts, who reported the deliberations of the 
meeting in the educational press, characterized as silly, dangerous, 
and from every viewpoint reprehensible the attempt to test the 
efficiency of the teacher by finding out what the pupils could do. 



MEASURING THE RESULTS OF TEACHING 503 

With striking unanimity they voiced the conviction that any attempt 
to evaluate the teaching of spelling in terms of the ability of the 
pupils to spell was essentially impossible and based on a profound 
misconception of the function of education. 

Last week [February, 19 12], in the City of St. Louis, that same 
association of school superintendents, again assembled in conven- 
tion, devoted forty-eight addresses and discussions to tests and 
measurements of educational efficiency. The basal proposition 
underlying this entire mass of discussion was that the effectiveness 
of the school, the methods, and the teachers must be measured in 
terms of the results secured. . . . 

The object of the new method is the substitution of evidence for 
opinion and knowledge for speculation. Its champions are working 
to develop measurements in education because they realize that only 
by this method can education become an art and a science and its 
practice be changed from a vocation to a profession. They scan 
the history of science and remember that through the develop- 
ment of measurements astronomy grew out of astrology, chemistry 
emerged from alchemy, and physics developed from mystery. 

They read the history of education and realize that the astonishing 
progress of the past decade has come from shifting the position of 
inquiry from asking " What results can or might we get " to " What 
results are we getting ? " This makes the pupil and not the teacher 
the center of interest. It calls a halt on the futile quest for standards 
of attainment on which we have never come to an agreement, and 
aims instead to discover units of measurement. Simple as it sounds, 
this change from asking ^' What results should we get ? " to asking 
" What results are we getting ? " is the keynote of the whole scien- 
tific method in education. To answer the question in its new form 
means the development of units of measurement, and when these 
are secured, the standards of attainment will work themselves out 
automatically. (1: 300, 308) 

Ordinary opinions are unreliable for comparisons. — The 

need of determining the value of teaching by a measurement of 
its results, instead of relying upon the observation and opinion 
of teachers and educators, is shown by the great difference of 
opinion among such persons when judging the same teaching. 



504 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

Thus, one supervisor will say that a geometry lesson was very 
well taught because the students were active and alert and there 
was much rapid-fire discussion. Another supervisor will con- 
demn the same lesson because the students were not quiet and 
self -controlled. Needless to say, the only adequate basis of judg- 
ing the effectiveness of the teaching is found in the measured 
achievements and progress of the students in acquiring and 
mastering geometrical processes, methods, ideals, and interests. 
Judgments of science made reliable by special technique. — 
The judgments of opinion have been contrasted with the more 
reliable judgments of science by Ayers in the above quotation 
and by Thorndike in the following statement : 

The judgments of science are distinguished from the judgments 
of opinion by being more impartial, more objective, more precise, 
more subject to verification by any observer, and by being made by 
those who by their nature and training should be better judges. 

Science knows or should know no favorites and cares for nothing 
in its conclusions but their truth. Opinion is often misled by the 
" unconscious logic of its hopes and fears," by prepossessions for or 
against this or that book or method or result. Science pays no heed 
to anything but the facts which it has already made sure of ; it 
puts nothing in the scales but objective evidence. Opinion trusts 
its personal impressions, bows to authority, and follows the crowd. 
Anyone's opinion constantly favors the methods he is used to, and 
is suspicious of new ideas except his own ; it accepts without veri- 
fication and rejects without a fair trial. Science seeks precise quan- 
titative measures of facts by which changes and correspondences 
may be properly weighed ; opinion is content to guess at amounts 
of difference and likeness, to talk in the vague terms of more or 
less, much and little, to rate a method as better or worse without 
taking the pains to find out just how much better or worse it is. 
Science reveals the sources of its evidence and the course of its 
arguments, so that any properly equipped thinker can verify for 
himself the facts asserted to be true. Opinion offers itself to be 
accepted or rejected, but not to be verified or intelligently criticized. 
Science is the work of minds specialized to search after truth and 
selected as fit for the work by their equals and superiors in it. 



MEASURING THE RESULTS OF TEACHING 505 

Opinion is the occasional thought of those who, though important and 
capable people, are yet only amateurs in the work of getting truth. 
Science would decide between two methods, say of teaching 
reading, by giving each an adequate trial, by measuring exactly 
the changes in bodily welfare, knowledge, interest, habits, powers, 
and ideals caused by the two, and by comparing impartially the 
results in the two cases. It would, for instance, arrange that 
method A should be tried in ten or twenty classes and method B 
in ten or twenty other classes of equal ability and advantages, 
taught by equally competent teachers. It would make sure that 
the two groups of teachers tried equally hard and that the two 
groups of classes were alike with respect to schoolroom equip- 
ment, the amount of time given to reading, and the like. It would 
measure with precision the accomplishment of each pupil in read- 
ing itself, in spelling and writing, in knowledge of facts gained, in 
appreciation of good literature, in interest in reading, in such habits 
as might be influenced by the special training of reading, in power 
to learn new things, and so on through the list of all the changes 
which instruction in reading may produce. (4 : 265-267) 

Variations iji opinions shown by grading of a geometry 
paper. — One of the chief difficulties in the way of securing 
such reliable scientific judgments and measurements as Thorn- 
dike describes is the lack of units and scales of measurement 
to use in rating or grading the achievements of students. 
Even the grading or measuring of such a definite piece of work 
as a student's geometry paper is quite difficult, and under 
ordinary circumstances permits of the widest variation, owing 
to the varying opinions and standards of different teachers. 
This fact was brought out strikingly by Elliott and Starch, 
who sent copies of the same geometry examination paper to 
a number of teachers to be graded, as described below. 

The paper was written as a final examination by a pupil in one 
of the largest high schools in Wisconsin. Plates of this answer 
paper were made and several hundred copies were printed upon 
foolscap, thus exactly reproducing the original in every detail. . . . 

A set of questions and a copy of the answer paper were sent to 
approximately 180 high schools in the North Central Association, 



5o6 



TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 



with the request that the principal teacher in mathematics grade 
this paper according to the practices and standards of the school. 

One hundred and forty papers were returned. Twelve had to 
be discarded because some of the data called for were not given. 

Distribution of Grades Assigned to the Same Geometry 
Paper by lis High-School Teachers 



25 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 

Fig. I. Passing grade 70. 43 schools. Median 67. Probable error 8 



39 41 44 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 

Fig. 2. Passing grade 75. 75 schools. Median 70. Probable error 7.2 



28 



53 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 

Fig 3. [Combined distribution.] Marks assigned by schools whose passing 
grade is 70 are weighted by 3 points. Median 70. Probable error 7.5. 



MEASURING THE RESULTS OF TEACHING 507 

Of the remaining 128, 43 came from schools whose passing grade 
is 70, 75 from schools whose passing grade is 75, and 10 from 
schools whose passing grade is 80. The papers show evidence of 
having been marked with unusual care and attention. Separate 
grades and comments usually accompanied the answer to each 
question. 

The grades thus assigned are represented by the distribution 
charts in Figures i, 2, and 3. The scheme of these charts is self- 
evident. The range of marks is indicated along the base line, and 
the number of times each grade was given is indicated by the num- 
ber of dots above that grade. Thus, in Figure i the grade 70 was 
assigned by 5 teachers. . . . 

Figure i gives the values assigned by 43 teachers in schools 
whose passing grade is 70. Figure 2 gives the values assigned by 
75 teachers in schools whose passing grade is 75. . . . Figure 3 is 
a composite chart showing the values assigned by [both groups] of 
teachers. (8: 255-257) 

The wide variation in the distribution of the grades given 
to the same paper by different teachers shows the fallacy of 
the current assumption that a mathematics paper can be 
graded with mathematical precision or is so graded in ordi- 
nary practice. Thus, as shown in Fig. i, in schools where 
the passing grade was 70, one teacher gave the paper a grade 
of 25, two others a grade of 45, and two others a grade of 90. 

Elliott and Starch had tried a similar experiment with an 
examination paper written by a student in high-school English, 
and had found similarly a wide variation in the grades given 
it. Strange to say, however, the marks for the mathematics 
paper showed even greater variation. In commenting on this 
fact they write as follows : 

Why the marks of this particular paper vary even more widely 
than those of the English papers is to be sought in the fact that 
this geometry paper allowed of two fairly distinct ways of evalu- 
ation. The form, make-up, and appearance of the paper were of 
decidedly poor quality. Some teachers entirely disregarded these 
elements, while others imposed a heavy penalty upon the paper on 



5o8 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

their account. In many instances this was indicated by the com- 
ments on the papers. But even this difference in viewpoint alone 
does not explain the extremely high or extremely low marks. For 
example, one teacher gave the paper a mark of 50 and said that 
he had deducted 4 points for spelling. Another marked it 45 and 
stated that he had made no deduction for the poor form. Still 
another one marked it 75 including a penalty for form or 85 
excluding a penalty for form. Furthermore, the amount that was 
subtracted for careless make-up ranged from 3 points in the case 
of one teacher to 13 points in the case of another. (8 : 258) 

Scales of measurement are being developed in various 
subjects. — If reliable comparative measures of the achieve- 
ments of various classes, schools, and systems are to be 
obtained, it is obvious that more reliable methods of rating 
these achievements must be secured than are provided by 
the ordinary systems of grading and marking. In order to 
secure more reliable objective scales and methods of measure- 
ment, a number of investigators have been at work for several 
years devising them for the various subjects. In the case of 
elementary-school subjects, C. W. Stone, working under the 
direction of Professor E. L. Thorndike, produced in 1908 
standard tests for sixth-grade arithmetic. Work along this 
line has been carried still farther by S. A. Courtis, who has 
developed a series of tests and standards in arithmetic for 
all grades, which can be purchased and used to advantage by 
any school official. In 19 10, Thorndike published a scale for 
the measurement of handwriting, and Ayers published another 
scale for the same subject about the same time. Thorndike 
also published a scale for drawing in 191 3. 

Example of scale for judging compositions. — In the case 
of high-school subjects the most interesting development is 
the ''Scale for the Measurement of Quality in English Com- 
position " worked out by M. B. Hillegas in cooperation with 
Thorndike. This scale consists of sample compositions of 
various degrees of merit, arranged in order and graded from 



MEASURING THE RESULTS OF TEACHING 509 

o to 100. The following are examples of three grades in 

the series : 

[Sample composition of grade] o 

Dear Sir : I write to say that it aint a square deal Schools is I 
say they is I went to a school, red and gree green and brown aint 
it hito bit I say he don't know his business not today nor yesterday 
and you know it and I want Jennie to get me out. 

[Sample composition of grade] 37 
Sulla as a Tyrant 

When Sulla came back from his conquest Marius had put him- 
self consul so sulla with the army he had with him in his conquest 
seized the government from Marius and put himself in consul and 
had a list of his enemys printy and the men whoes names were on 
this list we beheaded. 

[Sample composition of grade] 83 
Venus of Melos 

In looking at this statue we think, not of wisdom, or power, or 
force, but just of beauty. She stands resting the weight of her 
body on one foot, and advancing the other (left) with knee bent. 
The posture causes the figure to sway slightly to one side, de- 
scribing a fine curved line. The lower limbs are draped but the 
upper part of the body is uncovered. (The unfortunate loss of 
the statue's arms prevents a positive knowledge of its original atti- 
tude.) The eyes are partly closed, having something of a dreamy 
langour. The nose is perfectly cut, the mouth and chin are moulded 
in adorable curves. Yet to say that every feature is of faultless 
perfection is but cold praise. No analysis can convey the sense of 
her peerless beauty. (3 : 21 4-2 1 8) 

Such a scale makes it possible for a teacher or an investi- 
gator to rate or grade compositions in an objective way that 
anyone familiar with the scale can understand. For example, 
the teacher, after reading a student's composition, would say, 
'' This is most like number 83 in the scale," and grade it 83. 



5IO TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

Such a method of grading, when perfected, should produce 
much less variation in the ranking of papers by different 
judges than does the ordinary method investigated by Elliott 
and Starch. Moreover, it tends to include in the standard of 
grading the fundamental aspects of composition instead of 
merely including such minutiae as spelling, punctuation, and 
indentation, as described on page 499. For improvements 
upon the Thorndike-Hillegas scale see number 5 in the 
bibliography at the end of this chapter. 

Teachers sho2dd study technique of measuremejit. — The 
last five years (1909-19 14) have witnessed enormous progress 
in the development, by experts, of such methods of measuring 
the results of teaching — methods that are impartial, objec- 
tive, precise, and subject to verification by any competent 
observer. The beginning teacher may not be very much 
concerned with the use of these methods at first, but after 
he has developed control of the ordinary routine of teaching, 
he ought to train himself in the use of these methods, in 
order that he may secure reliable measures of the efficiency 
of his own teaching. 

Conclusion of discussion of measuring results. — In this 
chapter we emphasized the necessity of developing a special 
and reliable technique of measuring the results of teaching. 
This technique should frequently be applied in the classroom 
by the teacher, in order to demonstrate to himself and to the 
students just what progress they are making. Each student 
should be told how his achievement compares with the total 
achievement of the class, but comparisons between individuals 
should be avoided. To be reliable and satisfactory, the measures 
of achievement should be impartial, objective, and precise as 
far as possible. 



MEASURING THE RESULTS OF TEACHING 51 1 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES 

General discussions. — i. Ayers, L. P. Measuring Educational Proc- 
esses through Educational Results. School Review^ May, 191 2, Vol. XX, 
pp. 300-309. A very readable brief account of recent developments. 

2. BoBBiTT, F. The Supervision of City Schools. In twelfth Year- 
book of the National Society for the Study of Education. (The Univer- 
sity of Chicago Press, 191 3.) Pp. 15-50. The best nontechnical general 
interpretation of recent attempts to measure results. 

3. Thorndike, E. L. Education. (The Macmillan Company, 191 2.) 
Pp. 212-228. Brief, nontechnical, concrete discussion of recently devel- 
oped scales for measuring results in various subjects. 

4. Thorndike, E. L. Principles of Teaching. (A. G. Seller, 1905.) 
Pp. 257-273. Best brief discussion of general principles of testing in 
teaching. 

Special studies. — 5. Harvard-Newton Composition Scales. The 
Harvard-Newton Bulletin No. 2. (Harvard University, September, 1914.) 
Presents five scales designed to measure efficiency in description, narra- 
tion, exposition, argumentation, and reproduction. 

6. Hillegas, M. B. a Scale for the Measurement of Quality in 
English Composition by Young People. Teachers College Record., Sep- 
tember, 191 2, Vol. XIII, pp. 331-384. 

da. Johnson, F. W. The Thorndike-Hillegas Scale. School Re- 
view, January, 191 3, Vol. XXI, pp. 39-49. Criticism based on experi- 
ments with the scale. 

7. Starch, D., and Elliott, E. C. Reliability of Grading Work in 
English. School Review, September, 191 2, Vol. XX, pp. 442-457. 

8. Starch, D., and Elliott, E. C. Reliability of Grading Work in 
Mathematics. School Review, April, 191 3, Vol. XXI, pp. 254-259. 

9. Tufts, J. H. Present Problems of Instruction in The University 
of Chicago. The University of Chicago Magazine, December, 1910, 
Vol. Ill, pp. 58-86. 



CHAPTER XXIII 

ORGANIZED OBSERVATION OF TEACHING 

Main points of the chapter. — i. In order that the practical 
applications of the principles of method may be made clear to 
students, it is desirable to organize systematic observations in con- 
nection with courses in method. 

2. Such observations may serve either as illustrations of prin- 
ciples previously discussed or as the basis for deriving these 
principles. 

3. An outline of questions is printed, which takes up most of 
the topics treated in preceding chapters and may be adapted to a 
variety of situations. 

Observation essential to show applications of theory. — 

Perhaps the most instructive method of studying the general 
principles of method in normal-school or college classes is 
to take the whole class of prospective teachers to observe a 
lesson taught by a fairly skilled or competent teacher, arid 
then to discuss the observed lesson from the standpoint of 
the general principles which have been studied or which are 
to be studied. In the case of prospective teachers such ob- 
servations are almost essential in order that the principles 
which are under discussion may not remain purely abstract 
theory to them. Even in the case of experienced teachers 
it is often very illuminating to have it demonstrated that 
nearly all the questions of method that might be raised in 
connection with observed lessons do depend upon funda- 
mental principles, and, furthermore, that having these prin- 
ciples in mind will enable them to analyze, interpret, and 
criticize teaching more skillfully. Unfortunately, much of 
our actual practice in teaching, even by skilled teachers, is 

512 



ORGANIZED OBSERVATION OF TEACHING 513 

done without conscious regard to sound fundamental prin- 
ciples ; and, on the other hand, the detailed practical appli- 
cations of fundamental principles are seldom indicated on a 
large scale by educational theorists. 

Observations for illustration versics observations as soiLrces 
of discnssion. — For purposes of economy, in covering the 
ground in a general course in the principles of method it 
is usually necessary to have the observations serve primarily 
as illnstrations of principles of method which have been or 
are being studied systematically in the class. It is possible, 
however, to base a course on observations so that practically 
all the principles which it is desired to formulate can be de- 
rived from previous observations through discussions strictly 
guided by the instructor. In my own teaching of prospective 
teachers it has always seemed to me desirable to follow the 
more systematic introduction to the principles of method by 
means of syllabus, assigned readings, lectures, and discus- 
sions, with observations to provide illustrations. On the 
other hand, in classes consisting of experienced teachers 
who are preparing for supervision, it has seemed to me that 
the informal discussions based on observations are better. 
An essential point in this method is the systematic state- 
ment and organization of principles after they have been 
worked out in the discussions. This should include the 
gradual development of a syllabus of the main points by 
the teacher as the course progresses, and the independent 
preparation of a detailed syllabus by each member of the 
class. It usually happens that these syllabi contain nearly 
all the material that is found in the syllabus which is used 
in the systematic course, and, strange to say, the experi- 
enced teachers constituting the informal classes usually say 
that they would have preferred to have the course conducted 
in a formal, systematic way with the syllabus given to them-^ 
at the beginning. In spite of this testimony I continue to be- 
lieve that for experienced teachers who have had introductory 



$14 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

courses in education the informal discussions based on ob- 
servations and leading to well-organized principles are supe- 
rior. The great objections to such courses are that they get 
nowhere in particular, leave matters in the air generally, and 
waste time in attempting to " discover " principles. These ob- 
jections are avoided, however, by (i) definite direction and con- 
trol by the instructor, (2) the progressive organization of syllabi, 
and (3) considerable assigned reading at points where it applies. 

Printed scheme saves time but must be used intelligently o 
— In connection with the formal introductory course in the 
principles of method I have found it useful to print a list of 
points or questions to be used as a partial basis for reports 
upon lessons observed. This outline, which is printed below, 
may also be used in connection with observations and dis- 
cussions with practice teachers. In order that the observa- 
tion of the individual pupils constituting a practice group may 
be definitely provided for and organized, a list of questions 
for this purpose was prepared by Professor F. N. Freeman 
and is also printed below. The outlines may be used in a 
variety of ways and modified to suit local conditions. It is 
essential that the instructor make clear to students just how 
he expects the observations to be made and in just what way 
the outline for observation is to be used. As a routine device 
it saves time and energy, but it cannot take the. place of 
intelligent adaptation and direction by the instructor. 

In the case of observations in high school, prospective 
teachers are usually most interested in observing lessons in 
the special subjects which they are planning to teach. This 
often necessitates organizing observations by individuals or 
small groups instead of by the whole class. In the case of 
nearly all the old-established subjects, however, it is well for 
the prospective teacher to remember that in most high-school 
positions he may be called upon to teach any one of several 
subjects ; hence he may observe to advantage along a num- 
ber of lines. 



ORGANIZED OBSERVATION OF TEACHING 515 

Suggestions for Organizing Observation of Teaching 

The following outlines are printed in order to provide 
teachers and students with a definite starting point for the 
observation of children and of teaching. 

OBSERVATION OF PUPILS 

I. Physical differences. — i. Age of pupil for his grade. 2. Size 
of pupil for his age. 3. Degree of physical maturity (change of 
voice, etc.) in comparison with others in class. 4. Weight, color of 
skin, manner (active or languid, etc.), as indications of nutrition and 
healthy 5. Pronounced growth of abnormalities, as asymmetry of 
head, protruding teeth excessively large or small head, etc. 6. Pos- 
ture sitting and standing and character of movements as indicating 
degree of neuromuscular control. 7. Sensory normality — visual 
and auditory. Evidence of nearsightedness or eyestrain from far- 
sightedness or astigmatism. Evidence of inability to hear well — inat- 
tentiveness, slowness of response, or strain of attention. 8. Evidence 
of undue fatigue, nervousness, chorea, stuttering, or stammering. 

II. Me7ital differences. — i. Mental quickness. 2. Accuracy. 
3. Sustained or flighty attention. 4. Degree of interest and enthu- 
siasm. 5. Degree of initiative. 6. Unusual deficiency or ability in 
judgment and reasoning. 7. Mental energy. 

III. Social and moral characteristics. — i . Fairness and dispo- 
sition to cooperate. 2. Aggressiveness or meekness. 3. Boldness 
or shyness. 4. Self-confidence or self -depreciation. 5. Temper. 

6. Degree of thoroughness, carefulness, persistence shown in work. 

7. Obedience. 8. Honesty and truthfulness. 

OBSERVATION OF TEACHING 

The following outline is based on the topics discussed in 
the preceding chapters. In answering the questions, students 
should not write simply yes or no, but should describe the 
situation in the light of the question under consideration. 
In some cases single questions may serve as the basis for 
prolonged discussion in the class. In writing a report based 



5i6 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

on certain paragraphs in the outhne it is well to write to the 
general point of each paragraph and in such a way as to cover 
the detailed questions, but not to give a separate answer for 
each question or item in the paragraph. Such a report should 
contain concrete evidence for each point. 

I. The physical situatiofi. — Note the following aspects of the 
room: i. Lighting. 2. Ventilation. 3. Temperature. 4. Seating. 
5. Equipment and apparatus. 6. Cleanliness. 7. Decoration. 

// The routi7ie factors in management. — Note the following 
from the standpoint of economy of time and energy : i . Getting 
started. 2. Taking attendance and tardiness. 3. Handling mate- 
rials, including use of monitors. 4. Necessity and means of discipline. 

III. What the teacher was tryi7ig to accomplish., that is, the aim. 
— I. What was it .^ 2. Was it appropriate or worth while ? 3. Was 
it definite ? clearly obvious to an observer ? 4. Were the pupils 
clearly aware of it? 5. Was the lesson controlled by it? 6. Was it 
definitely achieved ? 

IV. The subject matter. — i. What was it ? 2. What was its social 
or applied value ? 3. Did it center around a few definite large topics 
or principles or was it ^^ scattering " ? 4. Was there a clear appre- 
ciation by the teacher of the relative value of the various parts ? 
5. Was the subject as a whole organized logically in terms of itself, 
or psychologically in terms of the learner ? 

V. The type of lea?'7ii?ig involved iii the lesson. — The following 
paragraphs {A to F^ relate to special types of learning, any one of 
which may be predominant in a lesson that has been observed. 
That is, the lesson may have been organized primarily to develop 
motor skill, or to build up associations of ideas, or to solve problems, 
etc. For each type of learning special questions of method need 
to be considered, some of which are suggested in paragraphs A to F. 

A. Motor learning. — If the process was primarily one of acquir- 
ing motor skill or motor control (for example, writing, manual training, 
gymnastics, vocal music, pronunciation of a foreign language) : 

1 . Did the pupils have a clear idea of what they were to attempt ? 

2. Did the teacher depend on imitation or descriptive directions to 
give the idea ? 3. Did he emphasize a special method or way of 
doing the thing ? 4. Did he concentrate the pupils' attention on the 



ORGANIZED OBSERVATION OF TEACHING 517 

form of the movement or on the objective results produced ? 5. Did 
he give separate drill on the elementary movements or provide only 
for drill upon complex movements ? 6. Did he tend to make the 
pupils self-critical or to have them depend upon him for criticism ? 

B. Association of ideas. — If it was primarily a process of build- 
ing up associations or connections between ideas or between ideas 
and symbols (for example, beginning reading, learning arithmetical 
combinations, vocabulary of foreign language, facts in history and 
geography) : i . Were the connections established in the form in 
which they would be used by the children; that is, wxre '^ things put 
together as they should go together"? 2. Were meanings con- 
nected with new symbols or simply one symbol with another ? 
3. Were ideas organized in a flexible way, so they could be recalled 
freely, or were inflexible systems built up ? 4. Did the teacher sug- 
gest any wrong connections, thus initiating wrong habits. 5. Was 
he careful to make sure the pupils were not establishing incorrect 
associations ? 6, Was there any endeavor to establish cross con- 
nections between different subjects (correlation) ? 

C. Drill. — If the teaching was primarily a process of fixing 
either motor or ideational connections that had already been started 
(for example, flash work in multiplication and in learning vocabu- 
laries, acquiring speed in writing) : i . Was the drill premature ; that 
is, was it started before sufficient care had been taken to assure 
correct connections ? 2. Did the students enter into it with zeal and 
concentration? 3, Was it concentrated upon the connections to 
be fixed or was time wasted on accessories ? 4. Was it continued 
too long ? 

D. Reaso7iing. — If the process was primarily one of problem- 
solving or reasoning (for example, in mathematics, science, thought 
work in history and literature) : i . Did the pupils really solve the 
problems or did they reproduce some other person's solution ? 
2 . Did the teacher succeed in assisting pupils to do their own reason- 
ing instead of doing it for them ? 3. Were they stimulated {a) to 
make a careful and thorough analysis of the whole situation ? {h) 
to examine critically each suggestion or element, to determine its 
bearing on the question ? {c) to keep the main problem clearly in 
mind and to check irrelevant thoughts and wanderings ? (^) to 
arrange, compare, and organize their ideas ? (e) to express tentative 



5i8 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

conclusions or summaries from fime to time as a measure of the 
progress they had made ? (/) to check and verify their tentative 
conclusions by seeing if they ^^ worked " in other cases or by refer- 
ring to standard authorities ? 4. If the instruction was devoted 
primarily to the acquisition of certain abstract and general mean- 
ings : (a) Were familiar examples studied in sufficient detail to pro- 
vide an adequate basis of real experience ? (b) Were the students 
given sufficient opportunity to investigate, examine, and analyze ? 
(c) Was the definition or generalization obtained through persistent 
generalizing and formulating by the students ? 

E. Enjoyment. — If the process was primarily one of acquiring 
habits of enjoyment (for example, in music, literature, contempla- 
tion of graphic and plastic art and natural scenery, participation in 
sports and games) : i. Was the enjoyment primarily of the contem- 
plative or of the active and '^ participative " type ? 2. Was it based 
on the relatively common, primitive reactions to rhythm, color, story, 
melody, etc. or on the rarer reactions to the technique of the artist 
or expert ? 3. Did the students really " have a good time " ? 4. Did 
the teacher tend to use the same method as would be used in study- 
ing ^^ intellectual " lessons, as in geography, law, psychology, 
mathematics, etc. ? 

F. Expression. — If the process was primarily training in expres- 
sion (for example, oral and written composition, dramatization, 
drawing) : i . Did it emphasize most the content side (that is, what 
the pupil had to communicate) or the form side (for example, lin- 
guistic forms)? 2. Was a real audience situation created, that is, 
the pupil with something to communicate and an audience to which 
it would be significant ? 3. Was the content selected from the broader 
fields of human experience or from the narrower field of literary 
expression and other phases of artistic expression ? 4, Was the 
emphasis placed on giving pupils command of expressional tools 
for everyday purposes or for artistic and technical purposes ? 

VI. Incentives., motives., i7tterest, atte7itioji. — i. Was there appre- 
ciation by the teacher of the economy in learning that comes from 
spontaneous interest on the part of the pupils ? 2. If the pupils were 
inattentive, what was the explanation ? 3. If interested, was the 
interest which was secured due to {a) the subject matter itself, (1?) the 
teacher's personality, {c) tricks or devices in method (for example, 



ORGANIZED OBSERVATION OF TEACHING 519 

sugar-coating) ? 4. Upon what instincts did the attention depend 
(fear of physical pain, fear of social disapproval or desire for ap- 
proval, emulation, curiosity, play, physical activity, manipulation, 
communication, cooperation) ? 5 . What interests were manifested 
which are especially characteristic of pupils of the age observed ? 
6. Were the children attentive because they had been taught the 
habit of being attentive as a duty ? 

VII. Provision for individual differences. — i . What obvious 
evidence was there of differences in mental capacity? 2. Any evi- 
dence of fast pupils marking time or slow pupils being dragged 
along? 3. Any provision to vary the pace, intensity, or quality of 
the work to provide for individual differences — for example, (a) fast 
pupils excused from participating in the recitation and given special 
seat work ; {I?) special contributions by faster pupils ; {c) class sub- 
divided into groups proceeding at different rates or given different 
work ; {d) special instruction for slow pupils ? 

VIII. Organization of the studying. — i. Was care taken in 
making the assignment of the lesson to be studied ? 2. Did it pro- 
vide definite problems so that the pupils understood exactly what 
they were expected to do ? 3. Any special attempt to arouse interest 
in the assigned work ? 4. Any anticipation of difficulties by the 
teacher ? 5. Any preliminary treatment by lecture or conversation ? 
6. Any supervised study ? How much ? How organized ? 

IX. ledwdng. — i . Did the teacher contribute anything by lec- 
turing? 2. How much? 3. Formal or informal? 4. Was it neces- 
sary ? 5. Was it justified ? 6. Did the pupils take notes ? 

X. Material from books. — i . Were textbooks used ? one or 
several? 2. What was the character of the recitation? {a) repe- 
tition of the text ? (l?) explanation of difficulties ? (c) interpreta- 
tion ? id) amplification or supplementing ? (e) criticizing ? 3. Were 
reference books used ? (a) as a primary source of information ? 
{h) for training in library work ? 4. Was there an economical sys- 
tem of assignments for reference work (syllabus, mimeographed out- 
lines, exact page references) ? 5. Was there an economical system 
of getting at references (duplicate copies, reserve shelves, skilled 
attendants) ? 6. Were notebooks on readings required and used so 
as to economize time of pupils and teachers ? 7 . Were bibliog- 
raphies prepared by pupils ? 8. (<a;) Did pupils make contributions 



520 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

from individual reading ? (^) Were these so organized as to give 
training in continuous oral expression ? 

XI. Laboratory wo?'k. — i. Was it primarily a process of dis- 
covery or a process of illustrating something already studied ? 

2. Did the interest center in the process of manipulation or in the 
scientific principle involved ? 3. Did the pupils understand the prin- 
ciple involved ? 4. (a) Was it demonstration work by the teacher 
or individual work by pupils ? (/>>) Compare the economy in the 
former with the training secured in the latter, and decide which 
method would be better in the case observed. 5. (a) What sort of 
manual and notebooks were used ? .{b) Discuss their value. 

XII. CoJiversational methods {sometimes vaguely called '' develop- 
ment " methods^. — The term refers here to lessons in which mate- 
rial is recalled from past experience through a process of mutual 
give and take by pupils and teacher, i. Would a lecture or text- 
book or reference treatment of the topic have been better ? 2 . Why 
was the conversational treatment used ? 3 . Was it economical ? 

4. Did it sufficiently enrich the experience of the children ? 5. Did 
it tend to wander from the topic .-^ 

XIII. Questioning. — i . (a) Did the class exercise call for rapid- 
fire questioning or slow, thoughtful questioning ? {U) W^as the pace 
adapted to the thought movement required ? 2. Did it seem that 
the teacher had carefully prepared the main central questions ? 

3. Did the questions elicit a thoughtful response from the members 
of the class ? 4. Did all pupils feel responsible for every question ? 

5. Were the questions fairly distributed so that many pupils were 
called on ? 6. Was the teacher skilled in tactful commendation or 
reproval which was adapted to each pupil's needs ? 7 . Did he make 
the recitation a place for group thought or did he waste time in 
pursuing or helping individuals ,'' 

XIV. Testing results. — i . Was there evidence that the pupils 
were held strictly responsible for outside preparation ? 2 . Was the 
testing of their preparation set apart or mixed in with the other 
phases of the recitation ? 3. Were students kept informed of how 
they were succeeding or failing ? 4. Did the teacher simply test 
whether they had learned their lessons or did he test also their 
ability to interpret and apply ? 



ORGANIZED OBSERVATION OF TEACHING 521 

Sample Directions for Five Reports 

The following directions suggest the way in which an in- 
structor may organize a specific number of observations based 
on the above outline. 

/. General directions. — In addition to the specific directions for 
the several reports given below, each report should contain the fol- 
lowing items : i. (^7) subject and topic observed, (J?) place, {c) grade, 
(d) day and hour, (e) name of teacher. 2. Your general impressions 
of the skill shown by the teacher observed. 3. A brief comparison 
of the teaching observed with the way you were taught the same 
subject. 4. Any new helpful ideas of method which you derived 
from the observation. 

II. Specific directions for the sevej'al reports. — In addition to the 
general directions noted above, follow the special directions for each 
report given below. 

Report No. i. Answer the questions in paragraphs I, II, and 
III on page 516 and in one of the paragraphs A, B, C, D, E, or F 
on pages 516-518. 

Report No. 2. Answer the questions in one of the paragraphs 
A, B, C, D, E, or F on pages 516-518, and also answer the 
questions in paragraph VI on pages 518-519. 

Report No. 3. Ansv\^er the questions in paragraph VII and 
also in one of the following paragraphs on pages 519-520 — 
VIII, X, XI, or XII. 

Report No. 4. Give an account of the whole lesson arranged as 
a lesson plan according to the directions given on pages 484— 
487. For this purpose, be sure to see a lesson that contains con- 
siderable subject matter and questioning. 

Also answer the questions in paragraph XIII on page 520. 

Report No. 5. Follow the same directions as for report No. 4. 

Ill Order of reports. — These reports need not be submitted 
in the above order, although this order is usually advisable. 

IV. Style of repo7't. — In answering the questions in the para- 
graphs referred to, write to the general point of each paragraph 
and in such a way as to cover the detailed questions, but do not 
try to write a separate answer for each question or item in the 



522 TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

paragraph. In other words, write a unified paragraph containing 
many points. Give concrete evidence for most points. 

Use theme paper. Fold lengthwise and put your name and the 
number of the report on the outside. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES 

Observation of children. — i. Kirkpatrick, E. A, Fundamentals 
of Child SHidy . (The Macmillan Company, 1903.) P. 358. 

2. Warner, F. The Study of Childrejt. (The Macmillan Com- 
pany, 1897.) P. 99. 

Observation of teaching. — 3. Bagley, W. C. Classroom Manage- 
ment. (The Macmillan Company, 1907.) Pp. 275-278. 

4. Whipple, G. M. Guide to High School Observation. (C. W. 
Bardeen, 1908.) 



INDEX 



Abstractions, acquiring, 205-229 
Academies, history of, 8 
Accessories, time wasted on, in 

drilling, 158-160 
Adams, J., on mental backgrounds, 
305-307 ; on step of preparation, 
308-310; quoted, 410; on con- 
versational method, 441 ; on So- 
cratic method, 443 
Addams, Jane, on recreation, 234 
Adolescence, reasoning ability in, 
. 331 ; interests during, 360 
Esthetic emotions, psychological 

analysis of, 244 
Age, influence of, on learning, Chap. 

XIII, 314-335 

Aims of instruction. See Purposes 
of instruction 

Algebra, abilities in, 373, 374 

Analysis in reasoning, 188 

Apperception, Chap. XII, 296-313 

Appreciation, meaning of, 242 

Arithmetic, abilities in, 373 

Assignment of lesson, 394, 447 

Associating symbols and meanings, 
96; Chap. VII, 122-141 

Associations, automatizing of, Chap. 
VIII, 142-168 ; directions for ob- 
serving, 517 

Attention, in acquiring skill, 99, loi ; 
influence of, on practice, 149-1 53 ; 
in whole method of memorizing, 
158; spontaneous and forced, 
341-344; instinctive, 344-358; 
habitual, 358-360; and efficient 
study, 403-41 1 ; directions for ob- 
serving, 518 

Audience and motive in expression, 
278, 281-284 

Automatizing associations. Chap. 
VIII, 142-168 

Ayers, L. P., on measuring results, 
502 



Bagley, W. C, on routine and judg- 
ment in management, 28-31 ; on 
Socratic method, 446 

Bagster-Collins, E. W., on phonetic 
methods, 116; on the Gouin 
method of learning German, 132- 
135 ; on grammatical training, 137 

Bair, J. H., on moving the ears, 
102 

Baker, F. T., on teaching English 
classics, 259 ; on qualifications of 
teacher of English, 277 ; on cor- 
recting themes, 284 

Barnard, A. F., his method of using 
sources, 38 ; on study questions, 
427 

Batavia plan, 387, 401 

Beers7^Gr~A:7'oh~aBTlifies in arith- 
metic, 373 

Bibliographical notes, on purposes 
of instruction, 23, 24; on economy 
in classroom management, 49 ; 
on selection and arrangement of 
subject matter, 93, 94 ; on acquir- 
ing motor skill, 121 ; on associat- 
ing symbols and meanings, 140; 
on practice or drill, 166; on re- 
flective thinking, 230 ; oh habits 
of enjoyment, 267 ; on training in 
expression, 294 ; on self-activity 
and apperception, 312; on influ- 
ence of age on learning, 335 ; on 
interests, 361 ; on differences in 
capacity, 389 ; on supervised 
study, 417 ; on use of books, 435 ; 
on conversational method, 448 ; 
on laboratory methods, 463 ; on 
questioning, 474 ; on practice 
teaching and lesson-planning, 
491 ; on measuring results, 511 ; 
on organized observation, 522 

Bibliographical training, 429-432 

Biology, type method in, 75 



523 



524 



TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 



Bobbitt, J. F., on musical activities, 

240 
Bonser, F. G., on reasoning ability 

of children, 326 
Book, W. F., on correct practice, 

143 ; on learning typewriting, 

145-147, 149-152 
Books, use of, Chap. XVII, 418- 

435; directions for observing use 

of, 519 
Boston, high school established in, 9 
Boston Latin Grammar School, 4 
Botany, historical changes in, 57 ; 

abstractions learned in, 206 
Breshch, E. R., on supervised study, 

397' 3985 406, 414-416; on distri- 
bution of questions, 469 
Briefs, writing of, 280, 288 ; used in 

oral reports, 432 
Bryan, W. L., and Harter, N., on 

learning telegraphy, 144, 152 

Chemistry, example of abstraction 
from, 207 ; laboratory work in, 

452 
Children, directions for observing. 

Class instruction and differences in 
capacity. Chap. XV, 362-390 

Classics, introduced in English 
classes, 253 ; methods of teach- 
ing, 258-262 

Classroom management, Chap. Ill, 

25-49 
Clearness in expression, training in, 

280 
Clubs, departmental, 236 
Colebrook Academy, its adaptation 

to rural needs, 61-64 
Collecting instinct, 353 
Comenius, J. A., 364 
Commendation and reproval, 470 
Commensurable results in testing, 

496 
Communication, 356 
Community needs. See Social needs 
Composition, grading papers in, 

507 ; Thorndike-Hillegas scale 

in, 508. See also Expression 
Concrete to abstract, 217 
Content and form in composition, 

284 
Contribution recitations, 288 



Conversational methods. Chap. 
XVIII, 436-447 ; directions for 
observing, 520 

Cooperation, in training in expres- 
sion, 288 ; instinct of, 356 

Courtis, S. A., on speed in reading, 

373 
Critical attitude in reasoning, 193- 

198 
Cubberly, E. P., on liberal versus 

vocational purposes, 13-15 
Curiosity, 352 

Dancing, 237 

Dearborn, W. F., on mirror writing, 
104-106; on memorizing vocabu- 
laries, 159 

Deduction, 229 note 

Definitions, value of, 220-225 

De Garmo, C, on history teaching, 
174; on hypotheses, 190 

Details, correct use of, 76-78 

Development method. See Conver- 
sational method 

Dewey, J., his definition of educa- 
tion, 30 ; on the social point of 
view, 54-55 ; on the nature of 
reflective thinking, iJ 83 ; on sus- 
pended conclusion,^'i94 ; on stu- 
dent evaluating suggestions, (;502 ; 
on method of scientific thinking, 

f,'204; on type method, 216; on 
concrete to abstract, 217 ; on ex- 
pository teaching, 219; on ne- 
cessity of definitions, 222 ; on 
generalization, 226; on induction 
and deduction, 229 note ; on ap- 
perception, SJ304 ; on preparatory 
step, 1308 ; on reasoning in chil- 
dren, 328; on laboratory work, 459 

Differences in capacity, and class 
instruction, Chap. XV, 362-390 

Direct method of learning a foreign 
language, 125-141 

Discipline, 43-49 

Distributed versus continuous prac- 
tice, 161-164 

Drama, enjoyment of, 263-266 

Drawing, training in, 291 

Drill, Chap. VIII, 142-168; ques- 
tioning during, 47 1 ; directions for 
observing, 517. See also Practice 

Drudgery in school, 338 



INDEX 



525 



Ears, experiments on moving the, 
102 

Ebbinghaus, H., experiments in 
memorizing, 147 ; on distributed 
practice, 162 

Economics, textbook based on prob- 
lems in, 171-173, 209-211 

Economy, in classroom manage- 
ment. Chap. Ill, 25-49 ; in learn- 
ing, based on interests, 336 

Efficiency as an aim, 16 

Eliot, C. W., on literature in schools, 

253 
Elliott, E. C, on grading papers, 505 

Emotion. See ^Esthetic emotions 
and Enjoyment 

Emulation, 345-350 

Encyclopedic tendency, 72-78 

English composition, routine as- 
pects of, 36-37 ; varied courses 
in, 66. See also Expression 

English Journal, 254 

English Teachers, National Council 
of, 254 

Enjoyment, as an aim of instruction, 
17 ; forming habits of, 96; Chap. 

X, 232-268 ; and self-activity, 299; 
and preparatory step, 311 ; influ- 
ence of age on, 332 ; testing of, 
499; directions for observing, 518 

Euclid, history of his " Elements of 

Geometry," 58-59 
Examinations. See Measuring results 
Experiments on motor skill, 99-108 
Expression, training in, 97 ; Chap. 

XI, 269-295 ; and self-activity, 
299; and preparatory step, 311; 
influence of age on, 333 ; testing 
of, 499 ; directions for observing, 
518 

Farnsworth, C. H., on unison sing- 
ing, 239 ; on whistling melodies, 
241 

Fear, of physical pain as a motive, 
348 ; of sarcasm, 349 

Feelings, influence of, on practice, 
148. See also Enjoyment 

Fiction, reading of, 254 

First day, management of, 31-33 

Flash cards for drills, 160 

Foreign language, learning pronun- 
ciation of, 114-1 18, 120 ; learning 



vocabulary of, Chap. VII, 122- 
141 ; influence of age in learning 
a, 318-325; social utility of, 323- 

325 

Form, and content in composition, 
284 ; in motor skill, see Good form 

Formal steps. See Herbartian formal 
steps 

Frankfurt plan for teaching a for- 
eign language, 133 

French. See Foreign language 

Galton, F., on the nature of reflec- 
tive thinking, 182 ; on heredity, 
197 

Games, 235 

Garber, J. P., on recreation, 234 

Generalization, 226 

Geography, encyclopedic method 
in, 72; regional method in, 73; 
type method in, 74 

Geometry, historical changes in, 
57-59 ; of doubtful value, 59 ; 
self-conducting groups in, 382 ; 
papers graded in, 505 

German. See Foreign language 

Gilbreth, F. B., his scheme of mo- 
tion study, 106-108 

Good form in motor skill, 99, 100, 
108, iiT, 118 

Good will as an aim of instruction, 

17 

Gouin method of teaching a foreign 
language, 130-136 

Grades, distribution of, 379 

Grading, methods of, 500 

Grammar, general ideas learned in, 
206 

Grammar schools. See Latin gram- 
mar schools 

Grammatical instruction in foreign 
language, 136-138 

Greer, W. C, on notebooks, 452 

Group instruction, 381 

Gymnastics, methods of instruction, 
108-111 

Habits, development of, as an aim 
of instruction, 20 ; free the mind 
for reasoning, 30-31 ; of attention, 
358 ; of enjoyment, see Associa- 
tion and Enjoyment 

Handling materials, 34-41 



526 



TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 



Handschin, C. H., on the Gouin 
method of teaching German, 135, 
136 

Harris, W. T., on simultaneous ver- 
sus individual instruction, 365— 
366; on conversational method, 

438 

Harter, N. See Bryan, W. L., and 
Harter, N. 

Health, as an aim of instruction, 
18-19; influenced by ventilation 
and lighting, 41 

Herbart, J. F., on interests as aims, 

\j 22 ; on psychological versus logi- 
cal organization, 79 ; on apper- 
ception, 307M 

Herbartian formal steps, 229 note, 
439 ; in lesson planning, 480 

Herbertson, A. J., on regional 
method in geography, 73 

Heredity, debate concerning, 197 

Herts, A. M., on children's theater, 
265 

High schools, history of, 9 

Hillegas, M. B., on composition 
scale, 508 

History, changes in social value of, 
55-57 ; for vocational students, 
66 ; overemphasis on early stages 
in, 69 ; encyclopedic method in, 
74; problem-solving in, 173-176 

Hoadley on laboratory work, 455 

Hofmann, J., on piano playing, iii, 
164-166 

Home study, 392-397, 415 

Hornbrook on laboratory method 
in algebra, 387 

Hypothesis, function of, in reason- 
ing, 190 

Ideals as an aim of instruction, 20— 
22 

Imitation, 99, 108, 119 

Incentives, directions for observ- 
ing, 518. See also Attention a7id 
Interests 

Indirect versus direct method of 
learning a language, 124-126 

Individual differences, and class in- 
struction, Chap. XV, 362-390 ; 
directions for observing, 519 

Induction, 229 note 

Information an important aim, 19 



Instincts as the basis of attention, 
344-358 

Interests, as an aim of instruction, 
22 ; influence of, on practice, 149- 
1 53 ; ajjjd economy in learning, 
Chap. XIV, 336-361 ; involved 
in studying, 409 ; directions for 
observing, 518 

James, W., on relation of habit and 
reason, 30-3 1 ; on reflective think- 
ing, 183; on analysis in reason- 
ing, 189 ; on teacher neglecting 
personal experiences, 218 ; on use 
of abstractions, 227 

Jesuits, their use of emulation, 346 

Judd, C. H., on teaching of science, 
86 

Judgment aspects in practice teach- 
ing, 476 

Juggling balls, 100-102 

Keatinge, M. W., on problem- 
solving in history, 174; on books 
as apparatus, 425 

Kennedy, John, and the Batavia 
scheme, 388 ; on the Batavia 
plan, 401 

Kepler's methods of scientific think- 
ing, 180 

Kester, F. E., on laboratory methods, 

450 

Kinetoscopic pictures used in ac- 
quiring skill, 106-108 

Kirkpatrick, E. A., on correct prac- 
tice, 143; on influence of results 
of an act, 148 ; on memorizing at 
different ages, 319 

Laboratory methods, routine of, 35 ; 
Chap. XIX, 449-464 ; directions 
for observing, 520 

Lancasterian monitorial system, 364 

Language, abstraction in, 205. See 
also Foreign language 

La Salle, J. B., and simultaneous in- 
struction, 364 

Latin, practical value of, 8 

Latin grammar schools, history of, 7 

Learner, organization of subject 
matter in terms of the, 78-94 

Learning, types of. Chap. V, 95-, 
97 



INDEX 



527 



Lecture method, 419, 420; direc- 
tions for observing, 519 

Lesson-planning, Chap. XXI, 475- 
491 

Leuba, J. H., on distributed practice 
in handwriting, 161 

Library, economical routine of, 38 ; 
reading in, 426 

Lighting of schoolrooms, 42 

Literature, relative values in, 70 ; 
aesthetic responses to, 244-250; 
teaching of, for enjoyment, 253- 
263 

Logical organization, versus psy- 
chological organization, 78-94 ; 
meaning of, 90-92 

Luther on purposes of instruction, 7 

Lyon, D. O., on distributed practice, 
162 

McMurry, F. and C, on conversa- 
tional method, 439-441 ; on lesson 
plans, 481-483 

Magazines, reading of, 256 

Mahaffy, J. P., on relation of moral- 
ity and art, 250 

Manipulation, 354 

Mann, C. R., on laboratory work, 
456, 460-462 

Manual training, shop routine in, 36 

Marshall, L. C, Wright, C.W., and 
Field, J. A., their textbook in 
economics, 171-173, 209-211, 231 

Mathematics, adaptation of, to rural 
needs, 63, 64 ; adaptation of, to 
needs of students, 81-85; abstrac- 
tions learned in, 205, 206. See also 
Algebra and Geometry 

Measuring the results of teaching, 
Chap. XXII, 492-511 

Memorizing, Ebbinghaus's experi- 
ments on, 147 ; use of method of 
recall in, 1 53-1 54 ; whole and part 
methods in, 154-158; of vocabu- 
laries, 159; testing of, 498 

Mental activity instinctive, 350-352 

Meumann, E., on whole and part 
methods of memorizing, 1 56 

Michelson, A. A., on relative values 
in physics, 71 

Mills, J. E., on laboratory work, 452 

Mimeographing class outlines, 39 

Mirror writing, 104-106 



Monitorial instruction, 371 

Monroe, W. S., on abilities in alge- 
bra, 373, 374 

Moore, E. H., on reconstructed 
mathematics, 81 

Morality, relation of, to art, 250-253 

Motion study, Gilbreth's scheme of, 
106-108 

Motive in training in expression, 278 

Motor skill, 96; Chap. VI, 98-121 ; 
practice in acquiring. Chap. VIII, 
142-168; self-activity in, 297 ; and 
preparatory step, 310; influence 
of age in acquiring, 315-318; in 
laboratory work, 458; testing of, 
499 ; directions for observing, 516 

Music, training in technique of, 1 1 1- 
114; enjoyment of, 238-242 

Needs of pupils, 78-94. See also So- 
cial needs 

Newton, I., his law of gravitation, 
196 

Normal-frequency surface, 377 

Notebooks, routine of, 39 ; in chem- 
istry, 451-454 

Observation of teaching, should sup- 
plement study of text, 3 ; direc- 
tions for. Chap. XXIII, 512-522 

Opinion versus science, 504 

Oral expression, 271, 285 

Oral instruction in foreign language, 
128-141 

Oral reports, 427-434 

Oral tests versus written, 495 

Order. See Discipline 

Organizing material of thought, 198 

Outlining, use of, in studying, 407, 
410 

Part and whole methods of memoriz- 
ing, 154-158 

Periodicals, reading of, 256 

Perry movement in teaching mathe- 
matics, 81 

Personality of teacher, influence of, 
on discipline, 45-48 

Pestalozzian oral instruction, 438 

Phonetic instruction in pronuncia- 
tion, 1 1 4-1 18 

Physical situation, directions for ob- 
serving, 516 



528 



TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 



Physics, value of exact measurement 
in, 71 ; abstractions learned in, 
206 ; laboratory work in, 450, 455, 

456 

Piano playing, iii, 164-166 

Plateaus in practice curves, 145-153 

Practice, Chap. VIII, 1 42-1 68 ; prin- 
ciples of, applied to composition, 
286; and self-activity, 298; in 
laboratory work, 458 ; apply prin- 
ciples of, in practice teaching, 
477-479. See also Drill 

Practice teaching, Chap. XXI, 475- 
491 

Preparatory step, 307-312 

Problem-solving, 170-205. See Re- 
flective thinking 

Program card for studying, 403- 
411 

Pronunciation of a foreign language, 
training in, 11 4-1 18 

Psychological versus logical organi- 
zation, 78-94 

Psychology, overemphasis on early 
parts of, 69 ; learning abstractions 
in, 208 

Pueblo plan, 379 

Purpose of lesson, 307-312; direc- 
tions for observing, 516 

Purposes of instruction. Chap. II, 
1-24 

Pyle, W. H., on whole and part 
methods of memorizing, 155; on 
distributed practice, 161 

Questioning, in supervised study, 
413; Chap. XX, 465-474; direc- 
tions for observing, 520 
Questions in lesson plan, 483 
Quick, R. H., on the Jesuits' use of 
emulation, 346 

Reading, speed in, 373 

Reasoning, not prevented by rou- 
tine, 27-31 ; influence of age on, 
326-332 ; directions for observing, 
517. See also Reflective thinking 

Reavis, W. C, on studying, 395, 396, 
399, 403-405, 411 

Recall, use of, in memorizing, 153 

Recitation, nature of, 424 ; contri- 
bution method in, 427 ; as a place 
for group thought, 468 



Reflective thinking, 96 ; not used in 
mirror writing, 106; Chap. IX, 
169-231; and self-activity, 298; 
and preparatory step, 308 ; in labo- 
ratory work, 459 ; mentioned, 411, 
424. See also Reasoning 

Relative values, 67-71 ; sense of, in 
questioning, 467 

Richmond, Indiana, musical activi- 
ties in, 240 

Rickard, G. E., on supervised study, 
412 

Ritter, K., on encyclopedic method 
in geography, 72 

Robinson, J. H., on encyclopedic 
method in history, 75 

Rousseau, J. J., on psychological 
versus logical method, 78 

Routine, in classroom management, 
27-31 ; in practice teaching, 476; 
in testing, 493 ; directions for ob- 
serving, 516 

Sarcasm as a stimulus, 349 
Sargent, W., on training in drawing, 

291 
Satisfaction, influence of, in drill, 147 
Schiller, F. von, on the drama, 263 
Schmidt, Lydia, her phonetic 

scheme, 1 17 
Schultze, A., on teaching mathemat- 
ics, 81 ; on solving geometry 
propositions, 203 
Science, general course in, 85-90 ; 
versus opinion, 504. See also Lab- 
oratory methods ajid the names 
of the special sciences 
Science courses for girls, 6^ 
Scott, F. N., his satire on teaching 

English classics, 260 
Search, P. W., on individual and 

class instruction, 366, 379 
Seats assigned to pupils, 33 
Self-activity, Chap. XII, 296-313 
Simultaneous instruction, 365 
Skill. See Motor skill 
Smith, D. E., on history of geometry, 
58-59 ; on unification of mathe- 
matics, 83 
Snap courses, in literature, 262 ; in 

oral expression, 285 
Snedden, D., on purposes of small 
high school, 60 



INDEX 



529 



Social activities, 236-238 

Social needs, determine selecting 
subject matter, 53-67 ; historical 
variation in, 53-60 ; vary between 
communities and groups of stu- 
dents, 60-67 

Socratic method, 171, 442-446 

Spencer, H., on social needs and 
English education, 53-54; on rela- 
tive values, 68 ; his classification 
of life's activities, 177 

Sports and games, 235 

Starch, D., on grading papers, 505 

Statistical technique, 370 

Stature of ten-year-old boys, 375 

Study. See Supervised study 

Study questions, 427 

Subject matter, selection and ar- 
rangement of. Chap. IV, 50-94 ; 
mastery of, in lesson-planning, 
482 ; directions for observing, 516 

Suggestion, part played by, in rea- 
soning, 187-193 

Supervised study, 387 ; Chap. XVI, 
391-417; directions for observing, 

519 
Supplementary reading, 425 

Swift, E. J., on juggling balls, 100-102 

Taylor, D. C, on vocal training, 
112-114 

Telegraphy, experiments in learn- 
ing, 144, 152 

Testing results of teaching. Chap. 
XXII, 492-511; directions for 
observing, 520 

Textbooks, use of, 421-425 

Thorndike, E. L., on ultimate and 
proximate aims, 16; on associa- 
tion, 140; on memorizing, 147; 
on influence of interest in prac- 
tice, 152; on distributed practice, 
163: on search for propositions 
in geometry, 191 ; on reasoning 
lessons, 211; on aesthetic emo- 
tions, 244-251 ; on individual dif- 
ferences, 367-377 ; on textbooks, 



422-424; onlaboratory work, 457 ; 
on science versus opinion, 504 ; 
on composition scale, 508 
Topics in composition writing, 271- 

277 
Translation method, 124-126 
Trial-and-error method, 99, loi, 102- 

106, no, 119 
Type method, in geography, 74 ; in 
biology, 75; in learning abstrac- 
tions, 214-217 
Types of learning. Chap. V, 95-97 
Typewriting, experiments in learn- 
ing, 145-147 

Understanding, testing of, 498 
University of Chicago, its direc- 
tions for lesson plans, 484-486; 
its regulations for practice teach- 
ing, 488; itSt directions for obser- 
vation, 515 
University of Chicago High School, 
mathematics in, 83-85 ; general 
science in, 83-89 ; phonetics in, 
117 ; parties in, 238 

Values. See Relative values 

Ventilation, 41 

Verbalism, 299, 301 

Verification in reasoning, 196-198 

Vocabulary of a foreign language. 

Chap. VII, 122-141 ; self-activity 

in learning the, 298 
Vocal training, 11 2-1 14 

Washington Irving High School, 
policy of, 12-13 

Welton, J., on definitions, 220 

Wendell, B., on literature in peri- 
odicals, 257 

Whewell, W., on Kepler's method 
of thinking, 180 

Whole and part methods of memo- 
rizing, 154-158 

Words and thought, 299, 301-303 

Written tests versus oral, 495 



3 47 7 5 



i 



